THE 

YOUNG  AMERICAN  CITIZEN 


IC-NRLF 


b?7 


JOHNSON  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


THE  YOUNG  AMERICAN  CITIZEN 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL 


THE 

YOUNG  AMERICAN 
CITIZEN 

CIVICS  FOR  GRAMMAR  GRADES 


BY 

J.  H.  BINFORD 

ASSISTANT   SUPERINTENDENT   OF   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 
RICHMOND,   VIRGINIA 


AND 


E.  U.  GRAFF 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 
INDIANAPOLIS,    INDIANA 


JOHNSON   PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
RICHMOND,  VIRGINIA 


Copyright,  1922,  by 
Johnson  Publishing  Company 


PREFACE 

THE  principle  of  self-development  through  self-activity  is  now 
well  established  in  education.  Modern  schools  have  made  remark- 
able advances  in  its  application.  The  child  is  no  longer  regarded  as 
a  mere  receptacle.  Both  the  courses  of  study  and  the  programs  of 
schools  attempt  to  make  provision  for  the  training  of  children  by 
allowing  them  to  carry  on  such  activities  as  are  needed  to  develop  in 
them  certain  desirable  qualities.  This  principle  is  well  understood 
by  most  educators,  but  not  so  well  by  the  general  public.  Many 
activities  criticized  by  school  patrons  as  fads  or  entertainment 
are  in  fact  the  very  activities  provided  for  learning  by  doing. 

The  value  of  the  principle  of  self-development  is  so  obvious 
that  subjects  which  lend  themselves  to  this  form  of  treatment  are 
assuming  greater  importance  Jn  the  curriculum  than  ever  before. 
Among  these  subjects  is* civics.  Because  it  is  a  social  study,  it 
is  well  adapted  for  direct  application  in  the  school  and  in  the 
community. 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  teaching  of  civics  is  to  train  for 
citizenship.  Necessarily,  facts  about  government  are  a  part  of 
this  training,  but  the  work  should  by  no  means  end  with  a  mere 
knowledge  of  facts.  There  are  so  many  ways  in  which  to  apply 
social  and  political  principles  that  it  would  be  a  pity  to  limit  the 
teaching  of  civics  to  the  purely  academic  side  of  the  subject.  The 
training  that  the  pupil  receives  in  home  and  in  school  in  making  him 
a  helpful,  law-abiding  member  of  his  group  is  indeed  the  most 
effective  training  for  future  citizenship  possible.  In  the  home  he 
learns  the  lessons  of  community  of  interest,  division  of  labor,  self- 
denial,  and  obedience  to  constituted  authority.  In  the  school 
he  learns  the  same  lessons  in  contact  and  association  with  a  some- 
what larger  group,  and  thus  develops  the  attitude  and  the  habits 
which  fit  him  for  community  life.  It  should,  however,  be  the 
peculiar  province  of  civics  to  bring  the  pupil  into  touch  with  the 
great  community  problems,  and  thus  definitely  to  enlarge  his 
horizon  and  prepare  him  for  the  duties  of  citizenship. 

In  The  Young  American  Citizen  the  subjects  of  city,  county, 
state,  and  national  government  are  treated  in  each  of  the  three 
parts  of  the  book.  This  progressive  treatment  is  necessary  since 

5 


J525H70 


the  pupil  is  unable  on  first  presentation  to  grasp  such  subjects 
in  their  entirety.  The  topics  most  easily  understood  come  first, 
more  detailed  study  later,  when  the  pupil  is  better  prepared  for  it. 
Such  large  and  important  subjects  as  health  and  thrift,  which 
because  of  their  essential  nature  must  be  repeated  at  reasonable 
intervals,  are  given  the  same  spiral  development. 

This  text  has  made  provision  for  group  activities  by  the 
organization  of  a  class  club.  The  class  club  will  find  many  oppor- 
tunities for  work  in  the  school  through  various  committees.  For 
example,  one  class  club  in  a  certain  school  had  a  "noon  committee," 
the  function  of  which  was  to  assist  in  taking  care  of  the  building 
and  grounds  during  the  noon  hour.  It  had  a  "room  committee" 
by  whose  efforts  the  schoolroom  was  made  attractive.  There  were 
boys'  and  girls'  "basement  committees,"  and  a  "lunch  committee" 
to  supervise  the  lunch  hour.  There  were  also  a  "yard  committee" 
and  a  "hedge  committee,"  the  duties  of  which  were  to  beautify  the 
grounds  and  building  and  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  school. 
Other  occupations  for  the  school  club  will  suggest  themselves  to 
every  teacher.  Such  an  organization  can  be  made  of  real  assistance 
in  obtaining  the  cooperation  and  the  enthusiastic  interest  of  the 
pupils. 

In  addition  to  the  class  club,  there  are  four  principal  ways 
in  which  pupils  may  be  stimulated  to  undertake  applied  work 
in  civics:  (1)  Dramatization  and  pageantry;  (2)  Student  organi- 
zations which  exemplify  the  working  of  civic  bodies;  (3)  Actual 
participation  by  children  in  adult  community  activities;  (4)  Visits 
to  and  study  of  community  utilities.  (See  page  310.) 

The  authors  earnestly  believe  that  this  text,  which  presents 
high  civic  ideals  and  practical  plans  for  putting  these  ideals  into 
effect,  will  be  welcomed  by  teachers  who  aim  to  secure  maximum 
results  from  an  elementary  course  in  civics. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    THE  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  ORGANIZED      .    .• 11 

II.     WHAT  A  COMMUNITY  Is 18 

III.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  COMMUNITIES 23 

IV.  THE  PLAYGROUND 29 

V.     COURAGE  AND  FAIR  PLAY 35 

VI.     WORK  AND  COOPERATION 40 

VII.     A  HEALTH  LESSON 46 

VIII.    THRIFT 52 

IX.    THE  GOOD  CITIZEN 56 

X.    OUR  CITY 60 

XI.     OUR  COUNTY 68 

XII.     OUR  STATE , 73 

XIII.  OUR  NATION 79 

PART  II 

XIV.  THE  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  REORGANIZED 85 

XV.     OCCUPATIONS ' 91 

XVI.     KEEPING  THINGS  CLEAN 98 

XVII.     SAVERS  AND  WASTERS      104 

XVIII.    BEAUTY Ill 

XIX.     SAFETY 116 

XX.    FIRE  PREVENTION 124 

XXI.     EDUCATION 129 

XXII.     LAWS 136 

XXIII.    TRIALS 141 

7 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXIV.     CITY  GOVERNMENT 148 

XXV.     COUNTY  GOVERNMENT 157 

XXVI.     STATE  GOVERNMENT 163 

XXVII.     SOME  THINGS  THE  NATION  DOES  FOR  Us 175 

PART  III 

XXVIII.     THE  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  REORGANIZED 184 

XXIX.     CHOOSING  A  VOCATION 187 

XXX.     OUTDOOR  LIFE 194 

XXXl.     AGRICULTURE  AND  MANUFACTURING 202 

XXXII.     TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 213 

XXXIII.  WHERE  OUR  LIBERTY  CAME  FROM 228 

XXXIV.  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 235 

XXXV.  THE  PRESIDENT  AND  THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS     .    .241 

XXXVI.     CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK 249 

XXXVII.     THE  FEDERAL  COURTS 255 

XXXVIII.     MONEY  AND  CREDIT 260 

XXXIX.  How  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  RAISES  REVENUE   .    .  268 

XL.     POLITICAL  PARTIES  .    . 271 

XLI.     NATURALIZATION 277 

XLII.     EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 283 

XLIII.     AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD 292 

APPENDIX 

SECTION 

I.     SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 299 

II.     MEETING  OF  A  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB 305 

III.  PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 310 

IV.  THE  TEXT  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION  .  ,    .    .  314 


The  American's  Creed 

I  believe  in  the  United  States  of 
America  as  a  government  of  the  people, 
by  the  people,  for  the  people,  whose 
just  powers  are  derived  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed ;  a  democracy  in 
a  republic;  a  sovereign  nation  of  many 
sovereign  states;  a  perfect  union,  one 
and  inseparable;  established  upon 
those  principles  of  freedom,  equality, 
justice,  and  humanity  for  which 
American  patriots  sacrificed  their 
lives  and  fortunes. 

I  therefore  believe  it  is  my  duty  to 
my  country  to  love  it;  to  .support  its 
Constitution;  to  obey  its  laws;  to 
respect  its  flag,  and  to  defend  it 
against  all  enemies. 

—  William  Tyler  Page 


HOUDON'S  STATUE  OF  WASHINGTON,  CAPITOL,  RICHMOND,  VA. 


The  Young  American  Citizen 

PART  ONE 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  JUNIOR   CITIZENS   CLUB   ORGANIZED 

Problems:  (1)  To  learn  the  value  of  organization;  and 
(2)  to  effect  an  organization. 

A  Great  Fire. — A  fire  broke  out  some  years  ago  in 
the  city  of  Manila,  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The 
lightly  built  wooden  houses  blazed  like  tinder,  and  in  a 
short  time  the  flames  spread  until  a  large  part  of  the 
city  was  on  fire,  and  its  entire  destruction  seemed  at 
hand.  The  natives,  unused  to  thinking  quickly,  were 
in  a  state  of  panic.  They  could  neither  stop  the  fire 
nor  save  their  household  belongings.  Terrified,  they 
looked  on  helplessly  at  the  leaping  flames. 

Help  Appears. — Two  groups  of  helpers  appeared  on 
the  scene  of  the  fire  at  the  same  time.  One  was  the 
fire  company,  which  promptly  set  to  work  throwing 
streams  of  water  on  the  burning  buildings.  The  other 
was  a  patrol  of  Boy  Scouts,  who  hurried  to  the  fire  at 
the  first  alarm.  They  helped  to  carry  furniture  to  a 
place  of  safety;  they  gave  help  to  the  fire  companies; 
they  bore  messages.  Acting  in  obedience  to  their 
Scout  Master  and  the  chief  of  the  firemen,  who  gave 
orders,  they  did  wonders.  Their  work  that  day 
greatly  lessened  the  horrors  of  the  fire,  which  burned  a 

11 


great  part  of  , Manila  and  left  three  thousand  people 
homeless. 

Power  of  Organization. — How  was  it  that  two  bands 
of  workers  could  do  so  much  while  the  natives  stood 
around  helpless  from  fright?  It  was  r  through  the 
power  of  organization.  The  firemen  had  practiced  their 
calling  for  years.  The  boys  were  organized  and  trained 
to  be  of  use  at  just  such  times — therefore  they  knew 
what  to  do.  They  knew  how  to  cooperate — that  is, 
how  to  act  together.  They  knew  how  to  take  orders 
and  carry  them  out.  A  small  number  of  Boy  Scouts, 
organized  and  trained,  were  of  more  use  than  hundreds 
of  grown  men  who  had  had  no  experience  in  teamwork. 

Girl  Scouts. — What  is  done  for  the  world  of  boy- 
hood by  the  Boy  Scouts  is  done  for  girls  by  the  similar 
societies  of  Girl  Scouts  and  Camp  Fire  Girls.  These 
clubs  have  taught  girls  how  to  do  .many  things  about 
the  house,  given  them  a  knowledge  of  outdoor  life,  and 
helped  to  make  them  strong  and  healthy.  Like  the 
Boy  Scouts,  the  Girl  Scouts  and  Camp  Fire  Girls  learn 
the  lessons  of  organization  and  the  ideals  of  citizenship. 

Organizing  a  Club. — How  would  you  like  to  organ- 
ize your  class  into  a  club  similar  in  many  respects  to 
the  Boy  Scouts,  Girl  Scouts,  and  Camp  Fire  Girls? 
This  society  will  add  to  the  pleasures  of  your  school  life 
because  its  meetings  will  be  different  from  your  regular 
classroom  exercises,  and  it  may  lead  you  to  undertake 
a  number  of  projects  that  you  will  enjoy.  Through 
this  club  you  will  take  up  a  new  study,  civics,  in  which 
you  should  learn  many  things  about  the  history  and 
government  of  your  country,  facts  that  will  help  you 
to  vote  rightly,  when  the  time  comes,  and  to  be  a  good 


citizen  in  all  ways.  Just  as  the  Boy  Scouts  organization 
teaches  boys  to  be  strong,  kind,  courageous,  and 
honorable,  so  your  Junior  Citizens  Club  will  train  you 
in  the  public  duties  of  men  and  women  in  a  free 
country. 

Way  to  Organize  a  Club. — "How  shall  we  organize 
a  Junior  Citizens  Club  and  what  work  shall  we  do 
after  we  have  organized?"  you  ask.  This  book  has 
been  written  to  guide  and  help  you.  In  each  chapter 
you  will  find  a  study  of  facts  about  your  government  or 
a  discussion  of  the  duties  of  citizens.  At  the  end  of  each 
chapter  you  will  find  certain  things  outlined  for  your 
club  to  do,  questions  to  be  discussed,  and  suggestions 
for  other  work. 

But  we  must  first  organize  our  Junior  Citizens 
Club.  The  following  is  an  account  taken  down  in 
shorthand  of  the  organization  of  a  club  in  the  5-A  grade 
of  a  large  city  school.  Read  it  carefully  and  then 
organize  your  own  club. 

JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  OF  LONGFELLOW  SCHOOL 

The  class  was  called  to  order  by  the  teacher,  who 
acted  as  chairman  until  the  organization  of  the  club  was 
completed.  The  teacher,  after  explaining  the  purpose 
of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club  as  the  teaching  of  citizen- 
ship by  practical  lessons,  appointed  a  committee  to 
bring  in  reports  on  a  constitution  for  the  club  and  a 
pledge  to  be  taken  by  the  members. 

On  the  following  Friday  the  club  met  again.  The 
teacher,  as  chairman,  called  for  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittee on  the  constitution  and  pledge.  The  committee 
made  the  following  report: 

13 


CONSTITUTION  FOR  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB 

Article  1.  This  organization  shall  be  known  as  the 
Junior  Citizens  Club  of  the  Fifth  Grade  of  Longfellow  School. 

Article  2.  The  object  of  this  association  shall  be  to 
train  members  for  real  citizenship  and,  furthermore,  to 
accomplish  each  year  at  least  one  thing  of  importance  for 
the  school  or  the  community. 

Article  3.  The  officers  of  the  club  shall  be  a  president, 
a  vice  president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  They  shall  be 
elected  by  ballot  and  shall  hold  office  until  the  end  of  the 
school  year. 

Article  4.  The  meetings  of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club 
shall  be  held  on  Friday  afternoon  of  each  week  of  the  school 
term  and  shall  begin  at  two  o'clock. 

Article  5.  The  following  committees  shall  be  appointed: 
Visiting,  to  visit  sick  members  of  the  club;  Improvement,  to 
assist  the  teacher  in  bettering  the  appearance  of  the  school- 
room ;  and  Entertainment,  to  get  up  programs  for  Christmas 
and  Easter,  and  other  special  days.  Each  committee  shall 
consist  of  three  members,  and  the  committees  shall  be 
changed  at  the  middle  of  the  school  year. 

THE  PLEDGE 

We  will  never  bring  disgrace  to  our  school,  city,  or 
country. 

We  will  obey  our  school,  city,  and  country's  laws. 

We  will  stand  for  the  right,  with  others  or  alone. 

We  will  aid  the  poor,  the  old,  the  young,  and  all  who 
need  help. 

We  pledge  allegiance  to  the  flag  of  our  country  and  our 
most  earnest  efforts  to  keep  ourselves  worthy  of  that  flag. 

The  teacher  then  said:  "All  who  are  in  favor  of 
adopting  this  constitution  and  this  pledge  as  the  law 
of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club  will  say  'Aye." 

A  chorus  of  "Ayes"  came  from  the  class  in  reply. 

The  teacher  went  on:  "All  who  are  opposed  to 
adopting  the  constitution  and  pledge  will  say  *No.": 

Not  a  single  student  said  "No." 

14 


"As  the  'Ayes'  have  it  unanimously,"  said  the 
teacher,  "the  constitution  and  pledge  are  adopted  as 
the  law  of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club.  The  constitution 
calls  for  the  election  of  a  president  by  ballot.  Nom- 
inations for  president  are  now  in  order." 

"I  nominate  Sam  Blackburn,"  said  Henry  Brown, 
rising. 

"Sam  Blackburn  is  nominated,"  went  on  the  teacher. 
"Are  there  any  other  nominations?" 

Willie  Smith  rose  from  his  seat.  "I  nominate 
Mary  O'Callaghan,"  he  said. 

"Mary  O'Callaghan  is  nominated,"  said  the  teacher. 
"Are  there  any  other  nominations?" 

No  one  spoke,  and  the  nominations  were  declared 
closed. 

"Sam  Blackburn  and  Mary  O'Callaghan  are 
nominated  for  president,  and  we  are  ready  to  vote," 
said  the  teacher. 

She  appointed  two  boys  to  act  as  tellers.  The 
tellers  tore  up  sheets  of  paper  into  small  bits  and  gave 
one  piece  or  ballot  to  each  member  of  the  class.  Accord- 
ing to  the  teacher's  direction,  each  member  of  the  class 
wrote  on  the  piece  of  paper  the  name  of  the  candidate 
for  whom  he  or  she  voted.  When  all  the  ballots  had  been 
written,  the  tellers  collected  them  and  read  them,  one 
by  one,  aloud.  As  they  did  so,  the  count  was  kept  on 
the  blackboard  by  two  students,  a  boy  and  a  girl.  It 
was  found  that  the  result  was  as  follows : 

Sam  Blackburn 22 

Mary  O'Callaghan ' .    18 

"Sam  Blackburn,  having  received  a  majority  of  the 

15 


votes  cast,  is  elected  president  of  the  Junior  Citizens 
Club,"  said  the  teacher,  "and  he  will  now  come  for- 
ward and  take  the  chair." 

Sam  Blackburn  came  forward,  and  the  teacher  gave 
up  her  seat  to  him.  Then  the  president  called  for  the 
election  of  a  vice  president  in  the  same  manner  in 
which  he  himself  had  been  elected.  The  election  of  a 
secretary  and  treasurer  followed  in  order. 


OFFICERS  OF  A  Civics  CLUB 

After  the  election  of  officers,  the  president  ap- 
pointed the  members  of  the  Visiting  Committee, 
Improvement  Committee,  and  Entertainment  Com- 
mittee, and  asked  them  to  report  at  the  next  meeting 
of  the  club. 

A  general  talk  then  took  place  as  to  the  way  in 
which  the  club  could  best  further  the  study  of  civics. 
The  teacher  gave  her  views,  and  several  of  the  students 
spoke.  It  was  decided  that  committees  should  report 

16 


daily  on  the  special  topics  at  the  end  of  each  lesson  in 
the  textbook.  These  committees  were  to  be  appointed 
by  the  president  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher.  It  was 
also  agreed  that  committees  should  work  out  practical 
projects  suggested  in  the  book. 

The  president  called  for  a  motion  to  adjourn.  The 
motion  was  made,  seconded,  and  carried,  and  the 
president  declared  the  Junior  Citizens  Club  adjourned 
until  the  next  meeting. 

ORGANIZING  YOUR  CLUB 

I.     Appoint  committees  to  report  on  the  following : 
Name  of  the  organization. 
Object  of  the  club. 
Constitution  and  Pledge. 
Slogans. 

Time  and  place  of  meetings. 
II.     Report  of  the  committees.    (The  teacher  will  hold  the  chair  until 

the  permanent  organization  is  completed.) 
III.     Election  of  officers  by  ballot. 


17 


CHAPTER  II 

WHAT  A  COMMUNITY  IS 

Problems:  (1)  To  learn  what  a  community  is;  and  (2) 
to  find  out  all  you  can  about  the  early  history  of  your  com- 
munity. 

Robinson  Crusoe. — Suppose  you  were  the  only 
person  on  an  island :  would  you  be  happy?  You  know 
you  would  not,  for  you  would  be  lonely  and  in  constant 
fear  that  some  wild  beast  or  savage  man  would  kill 
you.  You  have  read  the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  who 
was  shipwrecked  on  a  lonely  island  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  He  had  to  do  everything  for  himself,  since 
there  was  no  one  to  help  him.  He  built  a  house;  killed 
goats  and  dried  their  flesh;  fashioned  furniture; 
molded  pots  from  clay;  and  made  from  goatskins  a 
hat,  a  suit  of  clothes,  leggings,  and  an  umbrella. 

His  Own  Master. — Robinson  had  all  the  necessaries 
of  life  and  he  was  master  of  his  island.  He  could  do 
as  he  liked  all  the  time.  He  rose  in  the  morning  when 
it  pleased  him  and  spent  the  day  as  he  chose.  He  cut 
down  as  many  trees  as  he  wished  and  killed  goats 
whenever  he  felt  like  going  shooting.  He  had  no  taxes 
to  pay,  no  rent,  no  grocery  and  clothing  bills.  Yet  he 
was  unhappy  because  he  was  alone.  As  the  years 
passed,  his  desire  for  the  sight  of  a  human  face  and  the 
sound  of  a  human  voice  grew  almost  unbearable. 

Footprints  in  the  Sand. — One  day  while  he  was 
walking  along  the  seashore,  Robinson  suddenly  came 

18 


across  the  footprints  of  a  man  in  the  sand.  He  stopped, 
almost  overcome  by  his  feelings.  There  was  another 
man — or  men — on  the  island !  He  knew  that  they  must 
be  savages,  and  so  enemies  to  himself,  and  yet  the  very 
presence  of  other  people  on  his  lonely  isle  filled  his 
heart  anew  with  the  thirst  for  human  companionship. 
Some  time  later  he  saw  several  canoes  approaching  the 
shore.  A  number  of  savages  landed,  carrying  with 
them  two  prisoners.  One  of  these  was  killed  and  cut 
up  to  eat.  The  other,  before  he  could  be  put  to  death, 
made  a  dash  for  freedom.  He  ran  toward  the  spot 
where  Robinson  lay  hidden  in  the  bushes,  followed  by 
two  of  his  captors.  Robinson  made  up  his  mind  to  help 
the  fleeing  savage.  He  knocked  down  one  of  the 
pursuers  and  killed  the  other  with  a  shot  from  his 
gun. 

Friday. — The  captive  fell  on  his  knees  on  the  sand 
to  show  his  gratitude  for  his  rescue.  Then  he  spoke 
some  words  in  a  language  that  Robinson  did  not  under- 
stand. Sweeter  sounds  never  came  to  Robinson's 
ears.  At  last,  after  years  of  loneliness,  he  heard  a 
human  voice  and  felt  the  comfort  of  human  compan- 
ionship. He  took  the  man  to  live  with  him  and  named 
him  Friday,  because  he  had  come  on  that  day  of  the 
week. 

A  Community  Formed. — The  coming  of  Friday 
changed  Robinson  Crusoe's  life.  Why  was  this? 
There  was  some  one  to  be  with,  to  talk  to,  and  to  work 
alongside.  As  the  Bible  says,  man  was  not  made  to 
live  alone:  he  was  made  to  live  with  others.  Some- 
thing else  followed  from  Friday's  coming.  Robinson 
Crusoe  had  to  think  of  another  besides  himself.  Before 

19 


Friday  came  he  could  do  as  he  chose,  but  now  he  had  to 
consider  his  companion's  rights  and  interests  as  well 
as  his  own — otherwise,  he  and  Friday  could  not  have 
lived  together.  What  resulted  from  Friday's  coming 
was  that  a  community  was  formed.  True,  it  was  the 
smallest  possible  community — only  two  men — but  it 
was  a  community,  because  each  had  to  help  the  other. 


A  PIONEER'S  HOME 

Cpoperation  is  the  essential  feature  of  any  community: 
it  is  the  cement  that  binds  the  parts  together. 

Jamestown  and  Plymouth. — The  story  of  Robinson 
Crusoe  is  fiction,  but  the  history  of  the  early  colonists 
who  settled  our  country  shows  that  men  must  live  in 
communities — that  this  is  the  natural  mode  of  living. 
Suppose  the  settlers  who  landed  at  Jamestown  and 
Plymouth  had  at  once  gone  out  as  separate  families 

20 


into  the  forest.  What  would  have  become  of  them? 
They  would  have  perished  from  hunger  or  from  attacks 
of  Indians.  So  at  first  they  lived  together  in  settle- 
ments, and  in  this  way  subdued  the  forest,  conquered 
disease  and  famine,  and  kept  the  savages  at  bay.  Even 
when  they  scattered,  they  had  a  community  organi- 
zation binding  together  the  settlers  in  a  region.  The 
colonists  in  Virginia  called  their  communities  "hun- 


A  COLONIAL  HOME 

dreds,"  and  the  New  England  settlers  named  theirs 
"towns." 

Community  Life. — From  the  study  of  history  we 
learn  that  it  is  natural  and  necessary  for  people  to  live 
in  communities.  It  is  because  of  this  fact  that  they 
have  risen  from  savagery  to  a  state  of  civilization. 
There  could  be  no  farms,  factories,  railroads,  stores, 
churches,  and  schools  if  men  did  not  dwell  and  work 


together.  Because  people  live  in  communities,  they 
have  learned  to  observe  certain  agreements  that  are 
for  the  good  of  all.  These  we  call  laws,  and  the  power 
that  enforces  laws  we  call  government.  The  community 
you  know  is  your  neighborhood.  Go  to  the  top  of  a 
tall  building  or  high  hill,  and  your  community  spreads 
out  before  you  with  its  homes,  roads,  streets,  churches, 
stores,  and  schoolhouses.  Farther  than  the  eye  can 
see  lie  larger  communities  of  which  you  are  also  a  citizen 
—your  city,  county,  state,  and  nation. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  things  you  would  like  to  show  a  visitor  to  your 
community. 

2.  Write  the  names  of  the  men  and  women  from  your  community 
who  have  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  building  of  our  nation. 

3.  Find  out  from  histories  or  from  old  people  facts  about  the  first 
settlement  of  your  community:    from  what  place  (or  places)  the  settlers 
came;  why  they  moved;  and  how  they  made  the  journey. 

4.  Describe  the  difference  between  your  community  as  it  is  now  and 
as  it  was  in  the  days  of  your  grandfather. 

5.  Tell:    (a)  what  a  citizen  receives  from  his  community;    (b)  how  he 
can  help  his  community. 

6.  Let  each  club  member  bring  in  writing  on  a  slip  of  paper  one  answer 
to  the  following  question,  "How  Can  We  Help  Our  Community?"    Write 
the  five  best  answers  on  the  blackboard. 


CHAPTER  III 

DIFFERENT  KINDS   OF   COMMUNITIES 

Problems:  (1)  TO  study  the  different  kinds  of  communi- 
ties; and  (2)  to  learn  about  the  spirit  that  makes  each 
community  a  success. 

The  First  Community. — The  community  formed  by 
Robinson  Crusoe  was  accidental — that  is,  it  was  the 
result  of  the  meeting  of  two  lonely  men  on  a  desert 
isle.  But  the  first  community  that  all  of  us  know  is  a 
natural  one — the  home.  Wherever  a  father,  mother, 
and  child  live  together  is  a  home. 

Rights  of  Home. — Friday  had  certain  rights  that 
Robinson  Crusoe  was  obliged  to  respect;  and  in  the 
same  way  the  child  in  the  home  has  rights.  You  have 
the  right  to  good  food,  good  training,  good  surround- 
ings, and  other  advantages,  which  your  parents  gladly 
give  you.  However,  what  the  home  teaches  primarily 
is  that  every  member  of  the  little  community  has 
rights  which  it  is  necessary  to  observe.  You  have 
the  right  to  play  in  the  fresh  air  as  much  as  you  wish. 
But  if  some  one  lies  ill  near  your  playground,  you  will 
go  elsewhere  to  play  or  not  play  at  all  for  the  time: 
to  make  a  noise  near  a  sick  person  is  to  disregard  the 
rights  of  others.  In  the  home  father,  mother,  and 
child  have  rights,  and  the  proper  observance  of  these 
rights  is  the  first  step  to  be  learned  in  the  larger 
cooperation  of  life. 

Home  Old  as  the  Race. — The  home  is  as  old  as 

23 


the  human  race.  Ages  ago,  before  men  were  civilized 
and  lived  in  houses  or  even  tents,  when  their  dwelling 
places  were  nothing  but  caves,  they  lived  in  families 
and  had  homes.  The  home  has  remained  ever  since, 
through  the  thousands  of  years  of  human  progress,  as 
the  greatest  institution  of  humanity,  the  base  on 
which  everything  else  rests. 

What  Has  Grown  Out  of  Homes. — In  early  times, 


Copyright.  Publishers  Photo  Service 

A  COMFORTABLE  COUNTRY  HOME 

before  the  beginning  of  civilization,  each  home  was  a 
little  community  all  to  itself,  ruled  by  the  father. 
Then  a  number  of  families  combined  to  form  a  tribe, 
which  elected  some  one  to  be  chief.  Later,  a  number 
of  tribes  united  to  form  a  little  city.  This  process  of 
combining  tribes  and  cities  has  gone  on  ever  since, 
until  there  have  come  into  being  the  great  empires 
and  republics  of  today. 

24 


Government  Springs  from  the  Home. — The  first 
government  was  that  of  the  home  itself.  But  at  a  very 
early  period  men  found  that  they  could  not  live  to 
themselves,  with  their  families.  They  had  to  come 
together  for  mutual  benefit.  Before  there  were  any 
laws  and  rulers,  the  men  of  a  locality  would  meet  and 
talk  over  matters  of  common  concern.  Perhaps  dis- 
putes over  land  were  to  be  settled.  Perhaps  the  cattle 
of  one  man  had  been  seized  by  another.  Perhaps 
enemies  were  troubling  the  neighborhood  and  there 
was  need  of  defense  against  them.  For  the  protection 
of  all,  the  families  in  a  neighborhood — most  of  them 
relatives — would  combine  to  form  a  larger  community, 
putting  some  man  or  men  at  the  head.  They  would 
agree  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain  things,  and  these 
agreements  came  in  time  to  be  called  laws. 

The  Church. — Families  united  for  other  reasons 
besides  mutual  protection.  Even  in  very  early  times 
the  tribes  came  together  for  worship,  and  neighbor- 
hoods have  gone  on  ever  since  meeting  in  churches. 
The  church  is  an  important  community.  It  teaches 
the  relation  of  God  to  man  and  right  living,  but  in 
the  past  it  did  much  more  than  this.  A  few  genera- 
tions ago  the  majority  of  people  could  not  rea^d  or  write. 
They  depended  on  preachers,  who  were  educated  men, 
to  teach  them  by  means  of  sermons.  Many  people 
obtained  their  whole  knowledge  of  history,  politics, 
geography,  and  other  subjects  by  attending  church. 
In  public  meetings  the  preacher  played  a  leading  part 
because  he  was  well  informed.  No  matter  how  poor 
and  ignorant  a  neighborhood  might  be,  there  was 
almost  always  a  Bible  in  it  and  some  people  able  to 

25 


read  the  Bible.  The  laws  and  moral  ideas  of  the 
Hebrews  thus  became  the  rule  of  conduct  for  Europe 
and  America. 

The  School. — In  still  another  way  families  meet 
to  form  a  community — a  community  much  newer  than 
home  and  church.  The  school  is  a  community  formed 
by  the  union  of  families.  Formerly,  in  the  country, 


A  COTTNTRY  SCHOOL 

/ 

the  school  was  a  small  community  because  bad  roads 
made  it  impossible  for  the  children  to  come  long 
distances  to  school.  But  with  modern  good  roads, 
there  have  arisen  consolidated  schools,  which  have 
large  buildings  and  a  considerable  number  of  students. 
Because  of  this  consolidation,  it  is  possible  for  country 
children  to  have  wider  opportunities  in  study  and  in 
play. 


Teamwork  in  School. — The  school  itself  includes 
smaller  communities.  Members  of  baseball  and  foot- 
ball and  basket-ball  teams  are  parts  of  little  com- 
munities, for  they  are  persons  working,  or  rather 
playing,  together  for  a  common  end.  Teamwork,  or 
cooperation,  is  the  essence  of  success  in  athletics  as 
in  many  other  affairs  of  life.  Students  who  learn 
teamwork  not  only  play  games  better;  they  do  better 
work  in  the  schoolroom  and  they  feel  a  common 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  school.  They  try  to 
make  the  school,  outside  and  inside,  a  more  attractive 
place  in  which  to  live,  and  they  sometimes  have  a 
newspaper  in  which  to  record  the  various  activities 
of  the  school  community. 

County  and  Town. — These  first  communities — the 
home,  the  church,  the  school — serve  to  introduce  us 
to  the  larger  communities  of  which  we  are  also  mem- 
bers. The  study  of  civics  deals  with  these  larger 
communities — political  communities — of  which  every 
man  and  every  woman  are  parts.  The  first  of  the 
political  communities  with  which  we  come  in  contact 
is  the  county  or  the  town.  The  county  is  a  community 
made  up  of  all  the  farms  and  villages  and  stores  and 
churches — with  the  people — in  a  certain  part  of  a 
state.  The  town  or  city  is  the  community  made  up  of 
all  the  people  living  within  the  limits  of  a  group  of 
houses  large  enough  to  form  a  town  or  city. 

The  State. — The  next  political  community  is  the 
state.  A  number  of  counties,  cities  and  towns  form 
a  state,  which  is  a  community  of  importance.  The 
state  makes  most  of  the  laws  under  which  we 
live.  Most  courts  which  interpret  the  laws  are  state 

27 


courts.  The  state  officers  who  enforce  the  laws  come  in 
contact  with  everybody  in  one  way  or  another.  In 
nearly  all  the  relations  of  life  we  touch  the  state  and 
its  government. 

The  Nation. — The  largest  community  of  which 
we  are  members  is  the  nation.  The  American  nation 
is  made  up  of  forty-eight  states  and  the  District  of 
Columbia.  The  nation  makes  certain  laws  under 
which  we  live  and  attends  to  our  relations  with  foreign 
nations.  The  well-being  of  all  the  citizens  of  our 
country  is  dependent  on  the  wisdom  with  which  the 
national  affairs  are  conducted.  This  is  the  reason 
that  it  is  so  important  to  have  a  good  President  and  a 
competent  Congress. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  growth  of  the  home  and  tell  how  govern- 
ment springs  from  it. 

2.  Discuss  in  class  this  question:    Should  children  receive  a  weekly 
allowance  for  chores  done  at  home?     (See  page  302.) 

3.  Organize  your  club  into  committees  to  do  the  following  tasks: 

Keep  the  floor  clean  and  free  of  paper. 

Beautify  the  walls. 

Purchase  pictures. 

Beautify  the  school  grounds  by  cleaning  up  and  planting  trees 

and  flowers. 

Make  money  to  buy  books  for  a  library. 
Make  the  school  more  healthful. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  communities  of  which  you  are  a  member.    Ex- 
plain why  the  following  are  communities:  a  baseball  team;  a  school;  a  home. 

5.  Show  how  your  neighborhood  community  helps  other  communities. 

6.  Show  how  communities  in  other  parts  of  the  state  and  nation  help 
your  community. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PLAYGROUND 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  organization  as  shown  in  the 
playground;  and  (2)  to  organize  some  kind  of  team. 

Organization. — The  best  place  in  which  to  learn 
organization  is  in  your  play.  You  have  found  that 
when  you  play  games  you  must  have  government, 
unless  the  play  is  to  be  mere  romping.  Without  rules 
you  cannot  play  any  game,  because  you  do  not  know 
what  may  and  what  may  not  be  done  in  the  course  of 
the  game.  All  cooperation  depends  on  such  rules. 

Rules  in  Games. — Boys'  games  are  played  according 
to  strict  rules.  The  game  of  marbles  even  employs  a 
term  used  in  law,  for  a  boy  sometimes  says  "venue" 
when  he  wishes  to  gain  a  certain  advantage,  and 
unless  he  says  "venue"  before  another  boy  can  say 
it  he  loses  the  advantage.  Most  girls'  games  also  have 
rules  that  must  be  observed  carefully;  indeed,  children 
pay  more  attention  to  them  than  grown  people. 

Baseball. — It  is,  however,  in  the  leading  athletic 
games,  such  as  baseball,  football,  basket  ball,  and 
hockey,  that  the  importance  of  regulations  is  seen. 
There  are  many  rules  in  baseball,  and  they  must  be 
known  to  the  umpire.  The  umpire  is  the  person  who 
decides  what  happens  in  each  play  and  enforces  the 
rules.  If  the  umpire  is  not  obeyed  the  game  breaks  up, 
because  the  same  play  cannot  be  decided  in  two  ways. 
If  the  umpire  says  that  a  batter  is  out  at  first  base, 

29 


the  decision  must  be  accepted,  even  if  it  is  wrong. 
Usually  the  umpire  is  right;  we  go  ahead  on  the 
principle  that  he  is,  because  if  we  act  on  any  other 
plan  there  can  be  no  government  of  the  game. 

Football. — The  rules  of  football  are  even  more 
numerous  and  rigid  than  those  of  baseball.  Thus, 
one  cannot  tackle  or  seize  hold  of  anyone  but  the  boy 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

HARVARD  PRACTICING  FOR  THE  VARSITY  ELEVEN 

with  the  ball,  cannot  run  out  of  bounds,  and  in  making 
a  forward  pass  must  observe  a  number  of  things.  The 
principal  official  of  a  football  game  is  the  referee; 
he  decides  when  a  play  is  ended  and  when  the  penalties 
for  making  mistakes  should  be  applied.  Two  linesmen 
determine  whether  or  not  the  required  distance  has 
been  made  in  the  number  of  plays  allowed. 

30 


The  Captain.— The  playing  of  baseball  and  football 
is  under  the  control  of  captains.  Every  baseball, 
football,  or  basket-ball  team  has  its  captain,  who 
governs  it.  The  captain  makes  up  his  mind  as  to 
what  boys,  or  girls,  are  to  be  on  the  team  and  what 
style  of  game  is  to  be  played.  In  football,  the  quarter- 
back decides  what  plays  are  to  be  made  while  the 
game  is  going  on,  because  he  is  the  player  who  gives 
the  signals.  The  team  is  taught  to  know  and  obey  the 
signals,  and  if  one  of  the  players  fails  to  attend  to 
them  the  result  is  disastrous  to  his  side.  The  eleven 
which  has  good  teamwork  usually  beats  an  opposing 
eleven  which  has  finer  players  but  poorer  teamwork. 
In  fact,  the  game  of  football  is  a  most  excellent  training 
in  organization.  The  boy  who  plays  football  learns 
from  it  the  value  of  government  better  than  in  almost 
any  other  way,  because  the  good  lessons  we  learn 
while  we  are  enjoying  ourselves  are  the  best  lessons 
of  all.  We  see  what  they  mean  to  us. 

Choosing  the  Captain. — At  the  end  of  every  season 
a  football  team  chooses  a  captain  for  the  next  season. 
Who  is  chosen — a  fractious  boy?  Never.  The  men 
who  coach,  or  train,  the  team  have  a  voice  in  the 
election  of  the  captain,  and  they  always  want  a  boy 
who  knows  how  to  work  with  others.  The  boy  who 
can  do  this  will  be  the  best  one  to  teach  other  boys 
cooperation — and  that  means  success  in  football  as 
in  most  of  the  other  things  of  life.  The  captain  must 
be  a  good  player,  or  the  other  players  will  not  respect 
him.  He  must,  too,  be  a  leader — that  is,  he  must  know 
how  to  make  others  follow  his  leadership.  He  must 
be  an  honorable  boy,  one  in  whom  the  other  boys  feel 

31 


confidence,  or  else  they  will  not  believe  that  he  is 
fair  in  choosing  the  players  to  make  up  the  team. 
In  football  the  rule  of  merit  must  apply;  otherwise 
good  players  will  give  up  the  effort  to  get  on  the  team. 
This  choosing  of  the  captain  is  the  first  step  that  boys 
and  girls  take  in  government.  You  are  called  on  to 
vote  for  the  baseball,  football,  or  basket-ball  captain 
now,  and  when  you  grow  up  you  will  be  called  on  to 
vote  for  the  officers  of  the  government.  The  judg- 
ment you  develop  in  helping  to  choose  the  right  captain 
will  aid  you  in  later  life  in  selecting  the  right  governor, 
or  Congressman,  or  President. 

Sacrifices  of  Play. — Sometimes  boys  and  girls  are 
called  on  to  make  sacrifices  in  games.  Perhaps  a 
girl  has  to  give  up  her  place  on  the  basket-ball  team 
because  another  girl  has  become  a  better  player  and 
will  help  the  team  more.  President  Roosevelt  on  one 
occasion  did  honor  to  a  football  player  for  the  fine 
spirit  of  sacrifice  he  showed  in  a  Harvard- Yale  game. 
One  of  the  Harvard  halfbacks  had  played  splendidly 
through  both  halves  of  a  hard-fought  game:  largely 
by  his  efforts  the  ball  had  been  brought  close  to  the 
Yale  goal  posts.  But  the  game  was  near  the  end  and 
would  result  in  a  tie  unless  Harvard  could  kick  a 
field  goal.  Then  the  halfback  who  had  played  so 
well  was  taken  out  of  the  game  in  order  to  make  way 
for  another  player  who  could  kick  goals.  He  went 
without  a  word  of  remonstrance,  and  the  newcomer 
kicked  a  goal  and  won  the  game.  The  sacrifice  of  the 
first  player  made  victory  possible. 

Freedom  in  Play. — Organization  does  not  mean  the 
doing  away  with  freedom,  either  at  home  or  in  play. 

32 


In  homes  where  there  is  organization,  the  children  have 
more  time  for  themselves  than  in  houses  where  there 
is  constant  quarreling,  where  meals  are  not  on  time, 
and  where  the  children  do  not  go  to  bed  and  get  up  at 
regular  hours.  In  the  same  way,  the  football  player 
who  cooperates  loyally  with  his  team  mates  has  more 
freedom  than  the  player  who  does  not.  The  very  fact 
that  he  plays  in  harmony  with  ten  other  boys,  and 
helps  them  and  is  helped  by  them,  gives  him  a  chance 
to  do  things  he  otherwise  could  not  hope  to  do.  It  is 
by  teamwork  that  the  ball  is  advanced  toward  the 
goal,  near  enough  for  the  watchful  player  to  seize  his 
opportunity.  Then,  suddenly,  he  is  thrown  the  ball 
and  is  free  to  do  his  best  behind  the  screen  of  fellow 
players  who  protect  him  and  are  called  his  "inter- 
ference." He  is  free  to  make  a  touchdown  and  win 
the  game,  when  without  teamwork,  or  cooperation, 
he  could  accomplish  nothing. 

The  Benefits  of  Play. — There  are  great  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  play:  the  development  of  character 
and  the  strengthening  of  the  body.  There  are  other 
good  things  besides.  Play  trains  for  later  life.  Most 
boys  who  play  games  well  and  learn  the  value  of 
organization  do  well  in  after  life — often  they  do  much 
better  than  brilliant  students.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  they  know  how  to  do  their  best  under  hard 
circumstances,  how  to  work  with  others,  and  how  to 
stand  rough  knocks.  Play  also  develops  judgment, 
good  will,  sportsmanship,  and  a  sense  of  justice  and 
honesty.  The  world  is  not  an  easy  place  to  succeed  in: 
it  demands  all  of  the  qualities  mentioned — cooperation, 
hard  work,  and  endurance  particularly.  If  you  learn 

33 


these  things  at  play,  you  have  learned  most  valuable 
lessons. 

Playgrounds. — Once  upon  a  time  people  paid  little 
attention  to  playgrounds  for  children.  That  was 
before  they  realized  the  great  importance  of  play  in 
the  life  of  a  child  and  his  training.  Today  we  sometimes 
fear  that  children  will  not  get  enough  play.  We  have 
learned  that  happy,  healthy  children  will  make  happy, 
healthy  men  and  women,  and  that  in  depriving  them 
of  fresh  air  and  plenty  of  play  we  are  depriving  them 
of  their  birthright. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  games  which  can  be  played  in  your  section  in  summer; 
in  winter. 

2.  If  you  have   no  baseball,  football,  basket-ball,  or  hockey  teams, 
organize  one  or  more  of  them  now. 

3.  Make  plans  for  raising  money  for  these  teams. 

4.  Suggest  games  suited  to  a  lower  grade  and  help  teach  the  boys  and 
girls  of  that  grade  how  to  play  them. 

5.  Make  fields  or  courts  for  games. 

6.  Write  good  cheers  and  songs  for  your  team. 

7.  Make  a  large  poster  on  which  members  of  teams  will  sign  their  names. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  recreations  provided  by  your  community. 

9.  Go  to  the  front  of  the  room  and  speak  for  two  minutes  on  your 
favorite  game,  giving  your  reason  for  preferring  it. 


34 


CHAPTER  V 

COURAGE  AND  FAIR  PLAY 

Problems:  (1)  To  discuss  courage  and  fair  play;  and 
(2)  to  tell  of  instances  of  fair  play  in  your  school  life. 

Courage. — Both  physical  and  moral  courage  can  be 
learned,  in  a  high  degree,  on  the  playground.  It  re- 
quires bravery  to  be  a  good  football  player.  It  takes 
courage  to  dive  at  the  man  running  with  the  ball,  and 
it  demands  courage  to  run  with  the  ball  when  you 
know  that  you  will  be  tackled  and  thrown  to  the 
ground.  This  is  physical  courage.  Moral  courage 
comes  in  not  losing  heart  when  the  odds  seem  against 
you.  Often  a  football  team  is  beaten  before  the  game 
begins,  because  of  its  fear  of  the  other  team.  We 
should  make  up  our  minds  to  play  our  best  and  refuse 
to  acknowledge  defeat  beforehand,  no  matter  what  the 
odds  may  be. 

Moral  Courage  in  Play. — A  good  example  of  moral 
courage  was  shown  by  a  Harvard  football  team  in  a 
Harvard- Yale  game  a  few  years  ago.  Yale  had  won  all 
of  its  previous  games;  Harvard  had  had  a  bad  season. 
Almost  everybody  thought  that  Yale  would  win  easily, 
but  the  Harvard  players  refused  to  be  beaten  before- 
hand. When  the  contest  began,  it  was  evident  that  the 
Yale  players  were  heavier  and  stronger;  they  made 
great  gains  at  first.  But  Harvard  always  rallied  when 
the  danger  seemed  greatest  and  held  Yale  from  its 
goal  line.  The  first  half  passed,  the  second  half  was 

35 


nearing  an  end,  and  still  the  weaker  Harvard  team  was 
not  beaten  and  the  stronger  Yale  team  was  not  the 
victor.  Then,  suddenly,  something  happened.  The 
lightest  and  frailest  player  on  the  field,  the  Harvard 
quarterback,  made  a  great  run  that  changed  the  whole 
course  of  the  game.  Harvard  turned  from  the  defensive 
to  the  offensive,  stormed  across  Yale's  goal  line  and 
won  the  game.  It  was  a  triumph  of  "  gameness,"  gained 
because  the  team  which  everybody  expected  to  lose 
resolved  on  victory  and  won. 

Patrick  Henry. — There  is  another  and  harder  kind 
of  moral  courage,  and  that  consists  in  doing  what  you 
think  to  be  right  when  the  crowd  is  against  you.  It 
sometimes  happens  in  life  that  the  crowd  is  against 
you — that  the  majority  is  mistaken.  A  great  example 
of  moral  courage  was  shown  by  Patrick  Henry  in  1765, 
in  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  The  English 
Parliament  had  put  a  tax  on  the  American  colonies. 
The  Americans  felt  that  the  tax  was  wrong,  but  a 
majority  in  the  House  of  Burgesses  also  thought  that  it 
would  be  wrong  to  refuse  to  pay  the  tax.  Then  Patrick 
Henry  arose  and  declared  that  the  tax  was  tyranny  and 
should  not  be  paid,  that  the  king  of  England  was  a  bad 
ruler.  It  took  both  moral  and  physical  courage  to  do 
that.  The  House  of  Burgesses  might  have  looked  on 
Henry  as  a  traitor;  the  British  government  might  have 
hanged  him.  As  it  was,  his  courage  and  oratory  carried 
the  House  of  Burgesses  with  him;  the  majority  agreed 
with  him,  and  the  American  Revolution  began. 

Need  of  MoralCourage. — The  need  of  moral  courage 
is  no  less  now  than  then.  Our  country  at  the  present 
time  faces  dangers  of  many  kinds.  If  it  rises  above 

36 


them,  it  will  be  because  we  are  brave  and  dutiful.  We 
must  learn  to  be  brave  in  civic  matters — to  oppose 
cheating  and  waste  and  the  election  of  bad  men  to 
office.  We  must  learn  to  vote  as  we  think  right,  even 
if  it  is  sometimes  to  our  disadvantage.  We  must  learn 
to  put  what  we  believe  to  be  the  good  of  the  country 
above  all  other  things.  If  we  do  this,  the  future  of 
America  will  be  great  and  glorious. 

Need  of  Fair  Play. — There  is  another  quality  needed 
in  civics,  as  in  all  other  affairs  of  life,  and  that  is  a  sense 
of  fair  play.  We  must  be  just  to  others.  To  do  this 
takes  courage.  The  coward  seldom  believes  in  it  or 
practices  it.  We  may  say  that  fair  play  is  the  motto 
of  our  country:  always  the  United.  States  has  stood 
for  that.  The  republic  was  founded  on  the  great  idea 
of  seeing  that  everybody  gets  justice.  In  the  relations 
of  this  country  with  foreign  powers,  we  have  always 
contended  for  fair  play.  We  have  fought  for  it,  and, 
if  necessary,  we  will  fight  for  it  again. 

Fair  Play  on  the  Playground. — The  way  to  learn 
fair  play  is  on  the  playground.  There  are  always  oppor- 
tunities to  cheat  in  games  or  to  do  something  that  is  not 
quite  right.  If  you  are  playing  football,  you  will  be 
tempted  to  "hold"  an  opposing  player,  which  is  wrong. 
If  you  are  running  the  bases  in  a  baseball  game,  you 
will  be  tempted  to  cut  them  if  you  think  the  umpire  is 
not  looking.  Make  up  your  mind  to  lose  rather  than 
do  these  things.  The  great  law  .of  life  is  Play  the  game 
by  the  rules. 

A  Fair  Play  Story. — Owen  Johnson,  in  one  of  his 
stories,  has  given  a  fine  example  of  fair  play  and  also  of 
moral  courage.  Two  football  teams  in  a  school  were 

37 


playing  for  the  school  championship.  Dink  Stover, 
one  of  the  boys,  had  expected  to  play,  but  instead  he 
was  made  a  linesman — that  is,  one  of  the  officials  of 
the  game.  Both  teams  played  well  and  the  contest  was 
hard  fought.  Stover  was  wild  to  see  his  own  team  win, 
the  team  on  which  he  hoped  to  play  next  time.  In  the 
last  moments  of  play  the  opposing  team  made  a  touch- 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

A  STRUGGLE  AT  THE  GOAL 

down,  tying  the  score.  Then  the  goal  was  kicked,  but 
there  was  doubt  whether  it  was  really  a  goal.  Every- 
thing depended  on  this.  If  a  goal  had  been  kicked, 
Stover's  team  was  beaten;  if  it  had  not,  the  game  was  a 
tie.  This  is  what  followed: 

"  No  goal,"  said  Slugger  Jones,  the  umpire.  "  Time's  up ! " 

The  other  team,  the  Woodhull,  began  to  dispute  the 

decision.    Slugger  Jones,  surrounded  by  the  mass  of  shouting 

38 


boys,  began  to  take  the  vote  of  the  officials.  The  referee  and 
the  linesman  for  the  Woodhull  both  said  that  it  was  a  goal. 
Then  the  question  was  put  to  Stover  for  decision. 

"Dink,  was  it  a  goal  or  no  goal?" 

Stover  suddenly  found  himself  in  a  whirling,  angry 
mass — the  decision  of  the  game  in  his  own  hands.  He  saw 
the  faces  of  Tough  McCarty  and  the  Coffee-Colored  Angel  in 
the  crowd  about  him  and  he  saw  the  sneer  on  their  faces 
as  they  waited  for  his  answer.  Then  he  saw  the  faces  of  his 
own  team  mates  and  knew  what  they,  in  their  frenzy,  ex- 
pected from  him. 

He  hesitated. 

"Goal  or  no  goal?"  cried  the  umpire,  for  the  second  time. 

Then  suddenly,  face  to  face  with  the  hostile  mass,  the 
fighting  blood  came  to  Dink.  Something  cold  went  up  his 
back.  He  looked  once  more  above  the  riot,  to  the  shadowy 
posts,  and  then,  with  a  snap  to  his  jaws,  he  answered: 

"Goal!" 

Thus  Dink  Stover,  risking  unpopularity,  stood  for 
fair  play. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Give  instances   of   moral   and   physical   courage  shown  on   your 
playground. 

2.  Tell  stories  you  have  read  of  moral  and  physical  courage. 

3.  Discuss  "fair  play"  in  the  following  cases: 

When  a  big  boy  fights  a  little  one. 
When  a  number  of  boys  haze  one  boy. 
When  an  outsider  is  put  on  a  school  team. 


39 


CHAPTER  VI 
WORK  AND   COOPERATION 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  growth  of  occupations;  and 
(2)  to  learn  the  value  of  cooperation. 

Robinson  Crusoe  on  his  island  home  had  to  do 
everything  for  himself:  he  was  a  hunter,  gunsmith, 
carpenter,  potter,  cook,  tailor,  hat  maker,  shoemaker, 
and  he  did  many  other  things.  Having  no  one  to  help 
him,  he  had  to  be  a  Jack-of -all-trades. 

Colonial  Life. — What  was  true  of  Robinson  Crusoe 
was  true  of  the  whole  world  once,  before  people  learned 
to  cooperate.  This  was  true  even  in  the  United  States, 
in  the  colonial  period.  Every  farm  or  plantation 
produced  nearly  everything  that  the  people  living 
on  it  needed.  All  the  food  was  raised  on  the  place 
or  killed  in  hunting.  The  wool  was  clipped  from 
the  sheep;  and  carded,  spun  on  a  spinning-wheel,  woven 
into  cloth,  and  the  cloth  cut  and  sewed  into  clothes 
by  the  women  of  the  plantation.  The  ironwork  was 
also  done  on  the  place;  and  bullets  were  molded 
out  of  lead  by  the  children.  All  that  the  people  had 
to  buy  were  powder  and  lead  and  tea.  Everything 
else  was  supplied  by  the  farm  or  plantation.  There 
were  not  many  physicians  in  those  days;  the  women 
of  the  family  doctored  the  sick  with  medicines  made 
from  herbs.  Bad  teeth  were  pulled  with  strings.  Often 
there  were  no  churches,  and  then  the  head  of 
the  family  sometimes  held  prayers.  Nearly  all  the 

40 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 
(41)  OLD  METHOD  OF  SPINNING 


functions  of  life  were  performed  on  the  farm  or  plan- 
tation itself. 

Modern  Life. — Why  do  we  not  live  in  this  way  to- 
day? Because  we  have  come  to  see  that  the  old  manner 
of  living  is  wasteful.  If  a  man  has  to  do  a  dozen  things, 
he  cannot  give  time  enough  to  any  one  activity  to 


MAKING  COTTAGE  CHEESE 

become  expert  in  it.  We  have  learned  that  we  can 
accomplish  more  by  doing  one  thing  to  the  best  of  our 
ability  and  by  depending  on  other  people  to  do  other 
things  for  us.  Thus  one  man  becomes  a  farmer  and 
gives  all  of  his  time  and  attention  to  raising  cotton  or 
wheat  and  corn.  When  he  wants  shoes,  he  sells  a  part 
of  his  farm  products  and  buys  them.  When  he  has 

42 


need  of  a  doctor  or  dentist,  he  sells  something  and  goes 
to  town  to  be  treated.  The  shoemaker  does  nothing 
but  make  shoes,  and  by  doing  this  for  the  farmer  he 
gets  flour  and  meat.  Likewise,  the  doctor  and  dentist, 
by  treating  the  farmer,  earn  their  food.  When  the 
farmer  wishes  amusement,  he  takes  some  of  the  money 


MAKING  LARD 

he  receives  for  his  wheat  and  goes  to  a  moving-picture 
show.  The  moving  pictures  are  made  by  managers 
and  actors  who  spend  their  whole  time  in  doing  this 
one  thing,  relying  on  the  farmer  to  give  them  food  in 
exchange  for  entertainment. 

Cooperation. — In  this  way,  everybody  in  the  com- 
munity who  makes  an  honest  living  helps  everybody 

43 


else.  By  such  cooperation  the  community  thrives. 
The  blacksmith  who  shoes  horses  and  repairs  farming 
implements  helps  the  farmer  in  his  work  of  growing 
food.  The  clothing  factory  makes  clothes  for  him; 
the  shoe  factory  makes  shoes  for  him;  the  lawyer  pro- 
tects his  property;  the  doctor  and  dentist  attend  to  his 
health;  the  moving  pictures  furnish  amusement;  the 
preacher  cares  for  his  soul.  The  farmer  provides  food 
and  the  raw  material  of  clothing  for  everybody  else  in 
the  community,  and  everybody  else  does  something 
for  the  farmer  in  return. 

The  Law  of  Service. — You  will  see  from  this  that 
everyone  who  makes  an  honest  living  does  good  to 
other  people — he  performs  some  service  for  others. 
This  is  the  beautiful  law  of  service.  While  you  are 
earning  a  living  and  gaining  property  for  yourself,  you 
are  at  the  same  time  helping  your  fellow  men.  You  are 
feeding  them,  or  clothing  them,  or  curing  them,  or 
amusing  them,  or  elevating  them,  or  helping  them  in 
some  other  way. 

Idleness. — In  every  community  there  are  people 
who  will  not  work — that  is,  will  not  perform  any 
service  for  other  people.  There  are  young  men  who 
lounge  around  country  stores,  or  pool  rooms  in  towns 
and  cities.  There  are  young  women  who  never  learn 
to  do  any  useful  work,  such  as  cooking  and  sewing,  but 
spend  all  of  their  time  in  seeking  pleasure.  These 
persons  wish  to  live  without  doing  anything;  they  wish 
to  have  food  and  clothes  and  shelter  given  them  by 
others  without  giving  anything  to  others  in  return.  We 
say  that  they  consume  and  do  not  produce.  Such 
persons  are  of  little  worth  to  their  communities. 

44 


CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  in  your  community.     Tell  what 
preparation  is  needed  for  each. 

2.  List    the    occupations   which   you    consider    most    useful    to   the 
community. 

3.  Answer  these  questions: 

What  occupation  do  you  expect  to  take  up  when  you  are  through 
school?  What  are  you  doing  to  get  ready  for  it?  What 
studies  will  help  you  prepare  for  it? 

Why  does  a  stenographer  get  a  higher  salary  than  a  waitress? 

Why  should  a  rich  young  man  engage  in  business  or  other  work 
rather  than  spend  his  time  in  idleness? 

4.  Find  out  whether  there  are  any  cooperative  markets  in  operation 
in  your  section.      If  there  are,  tell  all  you  can  about  them. 

5.  Trace  the  growth  of  some  of  our  industries,  as,  for  instance,  the 
making  of  cloth. 

6.  Write  a  short  paper  on  "What  I  Wish  to  Do  When  I  am  Grown." 


45 


CHAPTER  VII 

A  HEALTH  LESSON 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  health  conditions  of  the  com- 
munity; and  (2)  to  plan  ways  of  improving  them. 

A  Typhoid  Story. — Mary  Card  well  was  a  bright 
sixth  grade  schoolgirl  living  in  the  village  of  Pleasant 
View.  Late  in  the  summer  she  was  stricken  with 
typhoid  fever  and  for  many  days  her  life  was  despaired 
of.  She  finally  recovered  from  the  fever  but  was 
several  months  in  regaining  her  health  and  strength. 
When  she  re-entered  school  in  the  first  week  of  Novem- 
ber, she  found  herself  far  behind  her  classmates.  At 
the  end  of  the  term,  Mary  failed  for  the  first  time  in 
her  school  life. 

Cause  of  Illness. — Why  did  Mary  have  typhoid? 
Nobody  knew  at  first,  because  the  water  supply  of  the 
village  was  good  and  there  had  been  no  epidemic  of 
fever.  Finally,  an  inspector  sent  by  the  state  board 
of  health  came  to  Pleasant  View  and  spent  two  days 
working  on  the  case.  He  succeeded  in  tracing  the 
fever  to  the  farm  of  a  small  dairyman  who  supplied 
Mary's  family  with  milk.  The  dairyman's  daughter 
was  ill  with  the  fever  at  the  time  of  the  inspector's 
visit  and  died  soon  after.  The  inspector  found  every- 
thing about  the  dairy  farm  dirty  and  illy  kept.  The 
house  was  not  screened  against  flies;  the  stable  was  in 
a  filthy  condition,  and  one  of  the  boys  on  the  place 
milked  the  cows  without  washing  his  hands.  The 

46 


result  of  such  carelessness  was  that  the  farmer's 
daughter  was  taken  with  typhoid  fever  and  Mary 
Car  dwell  contracted  it  from  the  same  source.  But 
for  the  inspector's  visit,  many  more  people  might 
have  been  stricken. 

Community  Health. — This  case  will  give  you  some 
idea  of  the  importance  of  health  regulations  for  the 
protection  of  the  community.  In  old  days,  there  were 
no  health  rules,  and  then  smallpox,  typhoid  fever, 
and  diphtheria  visited  whole  towns  and  counties, 
causing  many  deaths.  Nowadays  there  are  laws  for 
health  protection,  and  all  cities  have  health  officers  to 
enforce  them.  The  counties  do  not  always  have  health 
officers  of  their  own,  but  the  state  board  of  health 
does  a  great  work  in  making  known  to  the  country 
people  the  means  of  preventing  disease.  In  cities 
there  are  regulations  for  protecting  the  milk  supply 
and  inspectors  to  enforce  them.  Persons  violating  the 
regulations  are  punished.  Dairies  are  kept  clean  and 
the  milk  is  put  in  bottles,  which  must  be  scalded 
before  being  used  again.  Milkers  must  wash  their 
hands  before  milking.  Houses  where  cases  of  contagious 
diseases  exist,  together  with  their  occupants,  are 
quarantined.  In  many  cities  the  water  supply  is 
treated  with  chemicals  or  filtered,  in  order  to  prevent 
typhoid  fever.  Children  are  vaccinated  against  small- 
pox. In  the  great  influenza  epidemic  of  1918,  schools, 
churches,  and  theaters  were  closed  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  disease. 

Health  Departments. — We  have  seen  that  cities, 
and  sometimes  counties,  have  health  departments  and 
these  departments  make  and  enforce  rules  about 

47 


quarantines,  the  water  supply,  plumbing,  trash  and 
garbage,  stables  and  pigpens,  and  about  other  health 
matters.  In  some  communities  the  health  board  em- 
ploys physicians,  school  and  visiting  nurses,  inspectors, 
chemists  and  bacteriologists  to  protect  the  public 
health  and  give  aid  to  sick  people  who  have  not  adequate 
means  to  care  for  themselves.  There  is  much  less  sick- 


STORY  TELLING  AT  A  CHILDREN'S  HOSPITAL 

ness  and  death  in  such  communities  than  in  others 
where  less  attention  is  paid  to  health.  In  some  cities 
mothers  are  given  instruction  in  the  feeding  and  care 
of  babies,  in  order  to  prevent  the  many  deaths  that 
would  otherwise  occur.  In  all  cities  of  any  size,  there 
are  hospitals  for  the  treatment  of  sick  people  at  public 
expense.  All  of  the  states  have  departments  of  health, 
which  care  for  the  health  of  the  people.  If  a  certain 

48 


disease,  such  as  typhoid,  breaks  out  in  a  section  of  the 
state,  an  inspector  is  sent  to  search  for  the  cause. 
Cases  of  contagious  diseases  are  studied,  and  epidemics 
are  carefully  looked  into  in  order  to  prevent  other 
outbreaks.  Tons  of  literature  are  sent  out  to  the 
people  of  the  state  telling  them  how  to  keep  from  having 
typhoid,  hookworm,  and  other  diseases.  Diphtheria 


MODERN  HEALTH  CRUSADERS  GIVING  A  PLAY 

and  anti-typhoid  vaccine  are  sometimes  given  free  of 
charge.  No  department  of  the  state  government  is 
busier  than  the  board  of  health,  and  no  money  that 
the  people  pay  in  taxes  is  better  expended.  Money 
spent  on  disease  prevention  earns  a  return  a  thousand 
times  over. 

Modern  Health  Crusade. — Many  people  are  deeply 

49 


interested  in  spreading  information  regarding  health 
and  in  teaching  children  good  health  habits.  The 
Modern  Health  Crusade  was  organized  to  carry  on 
this  great  work.  Have  you  joined  it?  Millions  of 
children  are  members  of  the  organization,  which  teaches 
them  how  to  care  for  their  bodies.  Here  are  the 
"Health  Chores,"  to  be  done  each  day  by  all  those 
who  become  Modern  Health  Crusaders: 

1.  I  washed  my  hands  before  each  meal  today  and  before 
handling  food  prepared  for  eating. 

2.  I   gave   thorough   attention   to   personal   cleanliness 
today.    I  endeavored  to  keep  both  myself  and  my  immediate 
surroundings  neat. 

3.  I  kept  out  of  my  mouth  and  nose  today  every  object 
that  I  have  reason  to  consider  unclean  or  injurious  to  my 
health. 

4.  I  brushed  my  teeth  thoroughly  before  breakfast  and 
after  the  evening  meal  today. 

5.1  took  ten  or  more  slow,  deep  breaths  of  fresh  air 
today.  If  I  spit,  coughed,  or  sneezed,  I  was  careful  to  pro- 
tect others. 

6.  I  had  more  than  thirty  minutes  of  muscular  exercise 
or  active  play  outdoors  or  with  windows  open  today. 

7.  I  was  in  bed  I  ^  *     }  hours  or  more  last  night  and  kept 

my  windows  open. 

8.  I  drank  six  glasses  of  water  today,  including  one  before 
each  meal.     I  drank  nothing  that  I  have  reason  to  consider 
injurious  to  my  health. 

9.  I  was  careful  today  (1)  to  eat  only  wholesome  foods, 
meeting  the  varied  requirements  of  nutrition  and  promoting 
proper  bowel  action;    (2)  to  chew  thoroughly;    and  (3)  to 
attend  to  each  need  of  my  body  at  its  regular  time. 

10.  I  endeavored  today  to  maintain  a  straight  posture, 
standing  and  sitting;    to  keep  my  thoughts  clean,  cheerful, 
courageous,  and  constructive;   and  to  be  helpful  to  others. 

50 


11.  I  took  a  full  bath  on  each  of  those  days  of  the  week 
that  are  checked  (X). 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Discuss   some   rules   made   by    the   health    department    of    your 
community. 

2.  Name  some  diseases  that  are  quarantined  in  your  community. 

3.  Mention  some  rules  a  consumptive  should  follow  for  the  protection 
of  those  with  whom  he  lives  and  works. 

4.  Appoint  a  committee  to  inspect  the  school  premises  and  report  on 
how  the  health  of  the  pupils  can  be  better  protected. 

5.  Appoint  a  committee  to  gather  newspaper  clippings  relating  to  the 
health  of  the  community.    Post  these  clippings  on  the  bulletin  board. 

6.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  tell  of  one  thing  he  has  done  to  make 
his  home  more  healthful. 

7.  Get  the  secretary  of  your  Junior  Citizens  Club  to  write  to  the 
National  Tuberculosis  Association,  381  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City, 
for  full  particulars  about  the  Modern  Health  Crusade  and  see  if  your  club 
will  not  vote  in  favor  of  introducing  it  in  your  class. 

8.  Decide  what  steps  should  be  taken  when  unsanitary  conditions  are 
found  in  your  community. 


51 


I 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THRIFT 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  benefits  of  thrift;  and  (2) 
to  establish  a  school  savings  bank. 

Waste. — A  feature  of  the  savage  the  world  over  is 
improvidence.  "Eat,  drink,  and  be  merry,  for  to- 
morrow you  die, "  is  his  motto.  When  the  savage  kills 
game,  he  gorges  himself  so  that  he  can  hardly  move; 
he  seldom  puts  away  any  of  the  food  for  winter  and 
hard  times.  When  winter  comes  he  starves.  Even  in 
the  most  civilized  communities  there  are  people  who 
are  as  thriftless  as  savages.  They  spend  all  the  money 
they  get  on  the  desire  of  the  moment  and  make  no 
provision  for  the  "rainy  day."  Then  when  trouble 
comes  they  are  dependent  on  the  charity  of  their 
neighbors.  Such  people  are  not  entirely  civilized. 
They  still  have  the  savage's  improvidence.  What 
distinguishes  civilization  above  all  other  things  is  its 
vast  capital,  and  capital  is  simply  wealth,  or  money 
that  has  been  saved.  All  the  buildings  you  see,  and 
all  the  other  property,  are  the  result  of  saving.  When 
you  look  at  a  great  skyscraper,  remember  that  it  could 
never  have  been  constructed  if  people  had  not  saved 
the  money  to  build  it.  The  railroad  you  travel  on  was 
also  built  by  savings,  and  the  same  thing  is  true  of  all 
the  houses,  factories,  and  steamships.  The  tallest 
building  in  the  world,  the  Wool  worth  Building  in 
New  York,  resulted  from  the  savings  of  the  owner  of 

52 


a  chain  of  five  and  ten  cent  stores.  In  some  parts  of 
the  world  there  are  no  railways,  no  churches,  no  fac- 
tories, no  schoolhouses,  or  any  of  the  other  comforts  of 
our  life.  The  reason  for  this  condition  is  the  people 
in  that  part  of  the  world  have  not  produced  and 
saved  wealth.  They  are  satisfied  with  what  nature 
gives  them  and  do  not  seek  to  make  money  and  keep 
it.  Needless  to  say,  these  regions  are  ignorant  and 
backward. 

Savings  Banks. — The  man  who  saves  is  a  help  to 
the  community.  It  is  not  enough  to  make  money;  we 
must  save  it.  If  the  people  in  a  town  have  earned  ten 
thousand  dollars  in  a  week  and  if  a  circus  comes  on 
Saturday  and  carries  away  the  greater  part  of  the  ten 
thousand  dollars,  the  town  is  little  better  off  as  a  result 
of  that  week's  work.  But  if  the  ten  thousand  dollars 
goes  into  savings  banks,  it  will  remain  in  the  town  and 
bring  a  return  to  the  owners. 

A  School  Savings  System. — Have  you  a  savings 
account?  If  you  have  not,  you  should  lose  no  time 
in  opening  one.  The  boy  or  girl  who  does  not  learn  to 
save  in  school  will  not  be  likely  to  save  afterward. 
Such  habits  are  formed  in  youth  or  not  at  all.  Hun- 
dreds of  schools  have  put  in  savings  systems.  Each 
student  who  opens  an  account  is  given  a  pass  book  or 
card  in  which  is  entered  his  deposits  as  he  makes  them. 
The  money  is  placed  in  a  bank  and  interest  is  paid  on 
the  deposits.  Have  you  a  savings  system  in  your* 
school?  If  you  have  not,  discuss  the  matter  at  the 
next  meeting  of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club  and  appoint 
a  committee  to  work  out  a  scheme  for  a  savings  system. 
The  great  advantage  of  the  school  savings  plan  is  that 

53 


a  student  may  deposit  any  amount — cents,  nickels,  and 
dimes — while  in  regular  savings  banks  the  smallest 
amount  accepted  in  opening  an  account  is  a  dollar. 

Postal  Savings. — Another  good  way  of  saving  is  to 
invest  in  Postal  Savings.  Postal  Savings  stamps  are 
sold  at  post  offices  by  the  United  States  government. 
A  stamp  costs  ten  cents.  When  the  buyer  has  pasted 


CHILDREN  DEPOSITING  IN  A  SCHOOL  SAVINGS  BANK 

ten  stamps  on  a  Postal  Savings  Card,  he  can  exchange 
the  card  for  one  Treasury  Savings  Stamp.  This  stamp 
is  pasted  on  a  Treasury  Savings  Card,  which  has  spaces 
for  twenty  stamps.  When  this  is  filled,  the  buyer  may 
receive  twenty  dollars  or  exchange  it  for  a  Treasury 
Savings  Certificate  worth  twenty-five  dollars  in  five 
years. 

Thrift  Maxims. — The  great  men  of  the  world  have 

54 


usually  understood  the  value  of  thrift  and  practiced  it. 
The  following  are  a  few  of  their  sayings  on  this  subject: 

Economy  makes  happy  homes  and  sound  nations.  In- 
still it  deep. — GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

The  way  to  wealth  is  as  plain  as  the  way  to  market. 
It  chiefly  depends  on  two  words — industry,  frugality. — 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 

Teach  economy.  That  is  one  of  the  first  and  highest 
virtues.  It  begins  with  saving  money.-- ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 

The  man  who  does  not  and  cannot  save  money  cannot 
and  will  not  do  anything  else  worth  while. — ANDREW 
CARNEGIE. 

Make  all  you  can;  save  all  you  can;  give  all  you  can. — 
JOHN  WESLEY. 

Thrift  is  such  a  simple  thing — and  it  means  so  much.  It 
is  the  foundation  of  success  in  business,  of  contentment  in 
the  house,  of  standing  in  society. — RUSSELL  SAGE. 

No  boy  ever  becomes  great  as  a  man  who  did  not,  in  his 
youth,  learn  to  save  money. — JOHN  WANAMAKER. 

If  the  young  man  ever  expects  to  succeed  in  business  he 
must  be  economical.  No  matter  how  small  the  sum  the  boy 
or  young  man  is  receiving,  he  should  always  save  a  portion 
of  his  income. — HENRY  C.  LYTTON. 

It's  hard  for  an  empty  bag  to  stand  upright. — BENJAMIN 
FRANKLIN. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Mention  different  ways  by  which  boys  and  girls  may  earn  money. 

2.  Discuss  this  problem:  Mary  who  is  twelve  years  old  is  given  an  allow- 
ance of  fifty  cents  a  week.     Tell  how  much  she  should  spend  per  week  for 
the  following  items: 

Amusements. 

Church  and  Sunday  school. 

Charity. 

Savings  account. 

3.  Make  plans  for  establishing  a  savings  bank  in  your  school. 

55 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  GOOD   CITIZEN 

Problems:  To  find  out  (1)  what  are  the  qualities  of  a 
good  citizen;  and  (2)  how  you  may  be  one  now. 

The  Boy  or  Girl  Citizen. — Can  a  boy  or  girl  be  a 
good  citizen?  Yes,  you  can  be  a  good  citizen  now. 
Here  are  some  of  the  things  boys  and  girls  may  do. 
Study  them  carefully  and  see  if  you  can  give  a  reason 
why  each  of  them  helps  you  to  be  a  good  citizen: 

The  good  citizen  takes  care  of  his  health. 

He  is  clean  in  person  and  neat  in  dress. 

He  exercises  self-control. 

He  is  law-abiding. 

He  is  generous. 

He  loves  fair  play. 

He  practices  thrift. 

He  is  courteous  to  classmates. 

He  works  with  and  for  his  group. 

He  is  honest,  truthful,  and  courageous. 

The  Citizen  at  School. — In  your  school  life  you 
will  have  a  daily  opportunity  to  become  a  good  citizen. 
You  can  show  consideration  for  others  by  entering 
the  school  building  quietly  and  by  doing  nothing  in 
the  schoolroom  to  interfere  with  the  rights  of  your 
classmates.  You  can  take  part  in  all  class  activities 
and  learn  how  to  cooperate  with  others.  On  the  play- 

56 


ground  you  will  have  many  chances  to  develop  team- 
work and  to  stand  for  fair  play. 

Qualities  of  Good  Citizenship. — The  good  citizen 
has  the  following  primary  virtues:  ability  to  cooperate, 
industry,  honesty,  and  thrift.  These  are  very  necessary 
qualities,  and  because  the  majority  of  Americans  pos- 
sess them  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  country 
on  earth.  But  another  quality  is  needed  in  the  make- 
up of  the  good  citizen.  Industry,  honesty,  and  thrift 
have  to  do  with  our  own  immediate  concerns:  they 
are  the  qualities  we  use  in  our  daily  work,  in  dealing 
with  the  people  with  whom  we  come  in  contact.  The 
one  other  thing  needful  in  the  good  citizen  is  the 
performance  of  public  duty.  Public  duty  is  the  du.ty 
one  owes  to  all  the  members  of  the  community — "the 
community  of  the  town  or  county,  the  state  and 
the  nation. 

Voting. — There  are  duties  we  owe  the  government 
as  well  as  the  body  of  our  fellow  men.  These  duties 
are  called  political  duties.  Nobody  is  a  thoroughly 
good  citizen,  no  matter  how  honest  and  industrious 
he  is,  who  neglects  such  duties.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  bad  men  will  come  to  control  the  government 
if  good  men  fail  to  take  interest  in  it.  Sometimes 
you  may  hear  a  man  say  that  he  will  not  vote,  that 
he  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  politics.  But  whether 
he  does  or  does  not  have  anything  to  do  with  politics, 
politics  will  have  something  to  do  with  him.  The  wel- 
fare and  happiness  of  all  depend,  in  no  small  degree,  on 
the  kind  of  government  we  have.  We  cannot  have  a 
good  government  when  citizens  are  careless.  This  is  a 
danger  at  the  present  time.  There  are  thousands  of 

57 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

VOTING  BY  BALLOT  Box 


(58) 


educated  people  who  neglect  to  take  any  part  in  the 
government  of  the  country.  They  pay  no  attention  to 
public  questions  and  they  do  not  vote:  they  are 
shirkers.  To  read  about  public  questions  in  the  news- 
papers is  somewhat  troublesome,  but  it  is  a  duty  that 
every  citizen  of  a  free  country  owes  that  country. 
When  you  get  old  enough  to  vote,  inform  yourself 
upon  the  questions  of  the  day,  register,  your  name, 
and  pay  your  poll  tax.  Then  vote  in  every  election. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Name  some  other  virtues  which  a  good  citizen  ought  to  possess  in 
addition  to  those  listed  in  the  lesson. 

2.  Tell  how  books,  magazines,  and  newspapers  help  to  make  good 
citizens.  f 

3.  Discuss  in  class  these  questions: 

Can  an  ignorant  person  be  a  good  citizen? 

Is  a  grown  person  who  fails  to  vote  a  good  citizen? 

4.  Prepare  a  class  poster  for  your  schoolroom  setting  forth  the  most 
important  virtues  to  be  possessed  by  boys  and  girls  who  are  good  citizens. 
The  poster  may  be  made  by  inviting  each  pupil  to  prepare  a  poster  or  by 
the  appointment  of  committees.    The  poster  should  be  approved  by  vote 
of  the  class  before  being  posted. 


59 


CHAPTER  X 
OUR  CITY 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  your  city  (or  the  nearest  city); 
and  (2)  to  discuss  plans  for  making  a  "City  Beautiful." 

• 

The  Manufacturing  Section. — Let  us  take  a  ride  over 
a  city.  We  will  first  go  into  the  manufacturing  section. 
Here  we  see  a  great  factory  from  which  comes  the 
steady  hum  of  machinery.  Perhaps  it  is  an  iron  works, 
and  the  flash  from  the  forges  gleams  through  the 
windows.  Perhaps  it  is  a  shoe  factory,  and  we  hear 
the  clatter  of  the  sewing  machines.  There  are  factories 
of  many  sorts  in  this  part  of  the  city,  each  of  them 
contributing  to  the  wealth  of  the  community. 

Office  Buildings. — Let  us  turn  now  into  the  office- 
building  section.  Here  we  pass  skyscrapers  filled  with 
the  offices  of  business  men  and  lawyers,  and  the  street 
swarms  with  hurrying  people  bent  on  making  a  living 
for  their  families.  Here,  too,  are  the  banks,  and 
crowds  of  men  and  women  are  going  in  and  coming 
out  of  them.  This  section  is  -the  real  heart  of  the  city, 
the  place  where  the  business  is  done  that  brings  pros- 
perity to  the  community. 

The  Shopping  District. — Next  we  go  to  the  shopping 
district.  Here  we  see  few  men  but  crowds  of  women. 
This  is  the  most  attractive  part  of  the  city.  The  streets 
are  lined  with  shops  displaying  every  kind  of  goods. 
Now  and  then  we  come  to  a  great  department  store, 
with  immense  plate-glass  windows,  running  the  length 

60 


of  a  block.  If  it  is  near  Christmas,  this  is  the  busiest 
part  of  the  town,  for  people  are  buying  Christmas 
gifts.  Everywhere  there  are  toys  and  candy  and  the 
other  things  that  children  like. 

The  City  Hall.— The  city  hall  is  the  home  of  the  \7 
city  government — the  city  capitol.     Here  the  officers 
of  the  local  government  have  their  offices,  and  here 
are  the  courts.     People  come  to  the  city  hall  to  pay 
taxes,  to  get  permits  for  various  purposes,  to  record 


THE  JOHN  HANDLEY  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  WINCHESTER,  VA. 

deeds,  and  for  all  the  other  reasons  that  bring  them 
into  contact  with  the  government. 

The  Residential  Section. — Leaving  the  business 
section,  we  ride  past  large  hotels  into  the  residential 
portion  of  the  city.  Here  we  see  street  after  street  of 
dwelling  houses,  some  of  them  neat  and  small,  some 
of  them  fine  and  large.  Now  and  then  we  come  to  a 
park  offering  recreation  and  a  breathing  space  in  the 
wilderness  of  houses.  From  time  to  time  we  see  a 
schoolhouse,  and  if  we  are  strangers  in  the  city  we  will 
judge  it  largely  by  the  look  of  the  schoolhouses.  If 

61 


they  are  well  built  and  modern  in  appearance,  we  may 
know  that  the  city  is  prosperous  and  progressive. 
Nothing  tells  more  of  the  character  of  a  community 
than  its  schoolhouses. 

As  you  know,  the  people  of  a  city  elect  officers  to 
pass  laws  and  carry  on  the  public  work  of  the  com- 
munity. In  this  chapter  we  wish  you  to  make  a  study 
of  what  the  city  does  for  the  good  of  the  people. 

The  Streets. — One  of  the  most  important  public 
works  of  the  city  government  is  the  care  of  the  streets. 
We  cannot  get  out  of  our  homes  to  play  or  go  to  school 
without  using  the  streets.  Can  you  imagine  a  city 
without  well-paved  streets?  Well,  it  has  not  been  so 
many  years  since  streets  were  paved  with  roughest 
cobblestones  or  not  paved  at  all.  In  some  towns  wagons 
were  stalled  in  the  mud  of  the  streets  in  winter  time, 
and  people  crossed  them  with  difficulty.  Formerly 
in  many  places  it  was  the  custom  to  throw  trash  of  all 
sorts  in  the  streets  and  leave  it  there  to  decay.  Do 
you  think  that  such  streets  were  pleasant  or  healthy? 
They  were  not,  and  public-spirited  citizens  urged 
improvement  until  intelligent  care  was  given  to  the 
highways.  Nowadays  in  all  cities  worthy  of  the  name 
the  streets  are  cleaned  and  kept  in  repair,  so  that  even 
in  the  worst  weather,  and  soon  after  a  snowfall,  they 
are  just  as  passable  as  in  summer.  The  good  streets 
that  we  enjoy  are  one  of  the  features  of  modern 
civilization. 

The  Police. — What  would  you  do  if  some  one  were 
to  annoy  or  threaten  you  on  the  street?  Your  first 
thought  would  be  of  the  police,  those  protectors  of  the 
people.  If  a  policeman  were  in  sight,  you  would  feel 

62 


that  your  troubles  were  over — that  you  were  safe. 
You  would  call  to  him,  or  he  would  come  of  his  own 
accord  if  he  saw  that  you  needed  help.  In  homes  and 
schools,  in  moving-picture  theaters,  on  the  streets, 
in  church,  and  everywhere  we  go,  we  are  protected 
by  the  police.  This  was  not  always  the  case.  In 
olden  times  there  were  no  police  to  protect  citizens. 
Life  and  property  were  both  very  unsafe  before  the 
government  took  into  its  hands  the  matter  of  caring 
for  citizens.  Nowadays  the  police  are  always  at  work, 
hunting  down  criminals,  arresting  people  as  they 
break  the  laws,  and  protecting  houses,  banks,  and 
stores  from  thieves  and  burglars.  Another  important 
work  they  do  is  to  regulate  traffic.  By  their  efforts 
the  thousands  of  automobiles  and  trucks  pass  through 
the  crowded  streets  with  few  accidents.  But  for  the 
police  there  would  be  many  accidents  each  day,  and 
all  traffic  would  be  dangerous.  So  you  see  that  the 
money  spent  in  supporting  the  police  force  is  well 
expended,  since  the  welfare  of  us  all  depends  on  the 
sturdy  "guardians  of  the  law." 

The  Fire  Department. — The  city  has  laws  for  the 
prevention  of  fires.  However,  since  there  are  fires, 
the  city  also  maintains  a  fire  department;  but  for 
the  fire  department  a  large  part  of  each  city  would  be 
burned  frequently  and  many  lives  would  be  lost.  In 
spite  of  the  great  size  of  modern  cities  and  the  tall 
buildings,  fires  were  much  more  numerous  once  than 
they  are  now.  Owing  to  our  fire  departments,  most 
fires  are  put  out  before  much  damage  is  done,  and  not 
very  many  people  lose  their  lives  in  burning  buildings. 
Only  a  few  generations  ago,  cities  did  not  have  regular 

63 


fire  departments.  Fires  were  put  out  by  volunteer 
fire  companies.  These  volunteers  would  leave  their 
work  at  the  sound  of  the  fire  bell  and  come  running 
to  the  firehouse  to  drag  the  hose  through  the  streets 
to  the  burning  building.  Needless  to  say,  this  method 
was  ineffective,  and  regular  fire  departments  were 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

A  MODERN  FIRE  ENGINE 

found  necessary.  The  fireman,  like  the  policeman, 
is  one  of  our  best  friends.  Like  the  policeman,  he 
follows  a  dangerous  calling.  In  all  large  cities  firemen 
lose  their  lives  in  fighting  the  flames  and  saving  the 
property  of  citizens. 

The  Public  Library. — Another  public  service  per- 
formed by  most  cities  is  the  maintenance  of  free 
libraries.  Usually  there  is  a  central  city  library, 

64 


with  branches  in  various  parts  of  the  town.  These 
libraries  are  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  community. 
They  enable  high  school  and  college  students  to  go 
more  deeply  into  subjects  than  school  libraries  do; 
they  offer  grown  people  of  little  education  a  means  of 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

SCENE  IN  RAINIER  NATIONAL  PARK 

cultivating  themselves  in  their  spare  time;  they  afford 
thousands  of  people  innocent  recreation  without  cost. 
Most  city  libraries  have  children's  rooms  where  boys 
and  girls  may  read  books.  Have  you  a  public  library 
in  your  city? 

Parks  and  Playgrounds. — You  have  no  doubt 
heard  of  Central  Park  in  New  York  City.  This  park, 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  is  daily  visited  by 

65 


thousands  of  people,  especially  women  and  children, 
who  wish  to  get  away  from  stuffy  tenement  houses  and 
hot  streets.  It  is  a  lake  of  green  vegetation  a,mid 
the  grim  stone  desert  of  the  mighty  city — a  place  to 
benefit  the  body  and  refresh  the  mind.  The  land 
which  Central  Park  occupies  is  worth  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  but  the  city  thinks  that  the  money 


Courtesy  of  Miss  Kmilie  Yunker 

VACANT  LOT  TRANSFORMED  INTO  A  PARK 

is  well  invested  in  maintaining  this  breathing  place 
for  the  people  of  New  York.  In  the  same  way,  every 
city  keeps  parks  of  varying  size  and  attractiveness. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  beautiful,  in 
the  country  is  Druid  Hill  Park  at  Baltimore.  In 
addition  to  the  parks,  which  are  usually  playgrounds 
as  well,  in  many  cities  there  are  playgrounds  especially 

66 


maintained  for  children.  Does  your  city  have  parks 
and  playgrounds  to  help  make  it  a  "City  Beautiful"? 
If  it  does  not,  it  fails  to  do  its  full  duty  both  to  the 
grown  people  and  the  children.  They  must  have  such 
open  spaces  and  playgrounds  if  they  are  to  be  healthy 
and  happy. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  things  done  by  the  city  in  addition  to  those  outlined 
in  this  chapter. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  leading  articles  manufactured  in  your  city. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  places  of  historic  interest. 

4.  Write  a  list  of  the  city  offices,  with  the  names  of  the  officers  if  you 
can  get  them. 

5.  Describe  the  most  beautiful  street  in  your  town  or  city. 

6.  Describe  the  most  beautiful  park  you  have  seen. 

7.  Find  out  how  your  city  gets  money  to  carry  on  its  work. 

8.  Write  a  composition  on  your  city,  telling  about  its  history,  indus- 
tries, and  attractions. 

9.  Discuss  these  questions  in  class: 

Who  is  more  useful,  the  policeman  or  the  fireman? 
Which  are  more  important,  parks  or  libraries? 

10.  Carry  out  a  definite  undertaking  that  will  make  your  city  more 
beautiful.     The  picture  on  the  opposite  page  illustrates  the  work  of  school 
children  in  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

11.  Invite  a  city  official  to  talk  to  you  about  the  work  of  the  city. 


67 


CHAPTER  XI 

OUR   COUNTY 

Problems:  To  discuss  (1)  another  unit,  the  county; 
and  (2)  the  advantages  of  country  life. 

Country  Life. — About  one  half  of  all  the  boys  and 
girls  in  the  United  States  live  either  on  farms  or  in 
small  towns  and  villages.  You  will  often  hear  people 
speak  of  the  "advantages  of  the  city,"  but  if  you  live 
in  the  country  you  will  know  of  the  advantages  of  the 
country.  The  average  person  is  probably  better  off 
in  the  country  than  in  the  city,  because  of  the  fresh 
air  and  the  outdoor  life.  Most  city  work  is  done  indoors, 
not  out  in  the  sunshine.  Living  in  the  city  is  very 
costly,  because  rents  are  high  and  most  people  do  not 
own  their  homes  and  because  there  are  many  expenses 
people  do  not  have  in  the  country.  The  country 
dweller  does  not  pay  the  high  city  taxes.  His  taxes 
are  usually  small,  because  the  country  does  not  keep 
up  departments  requiring  the  services  of  large  numbers 
of  persons.  Crime  is  less  frequent  in  the  country 
than  in  cities,  as  criminals  usually  live  in  towns. 

Roads  and  Bridges. — There  is  much  that  the 
county  does  for  its  citizens.  When  you  leave  your  home 
for  school,  you  probably  pass  over  a  concrete  bridge. 
That  bridge  was  put  there  by  the  county.  You  may 
travel  for  several  miles  on  a  good  road.  The  county 
made  that  road.  Country  people  pay  higher  taxes 
than  they  used  to  do,  but  they  are  willing  to  pay 

68 


more  and  have  beautiful  roads  in  place  of  the  mud 
lanes  of  the  old  days.  Indeed,  good  roads  have  made 
living  in  the  country  a  different  thing  from  former 
times.  Formerly  people  were  often  kept  at  home  for 
months  at  a  time  because  of  the  muddy  roads.  At 
present,  the  country  boy  and  the  country  girl  find 
little  difficulty  in  going  to  school  or  church  or  visiting 
at  any  season  of  the  year. 

Schools. — The  county  also  spends  much  more  tax 
money  on  schools  than  it  used  to  do.  Once  upon  a 
time  the  good  schools  were  in  the  city  and  the  poor 
schools  in  the  country.  Sometimes  the  buildings  were 
log  cabins,  unworthy  of  the  name  of  schools.  The 
teachers  knew  little,  and  the  students  used  books  that 
had  been  in  service  for  many  years  and  were  torn  and 
dirty.  All  that  is  changed  now.  There  are  large  and 
beautiful  schoolhouses,  many  of  them  consolidated 
schools,  in  every  country  section  of  the  United  States; 
the  school  term  has  been  much  lengthened;  the 
teachers  are  graduates  of  normal  schools  and  receive 
fair  salaries.  If  you  live  in  a  county  which  has  good 
school  buildings,  a  nine-months  term,  and  well-paid 
teachers,  you  have  a  right  to  be  proud  of  it.  It  is  a 
progressive  county. 

Protecting  Life  and  Property. — In  the  country, 
citizens  are  sometimes  called  on  to  help  protect  the 
community  from  lawless  men.  Every  county  has  its 
sheriff  or  constable  who  is  paid  to  look  out  for  the 
safety  of  the  community.  Usually  the  sheriff  is  a 
brave  and  competent  man.  If  a  crime  is  committed, 
he  arrests  the  criminal,  alone  or  with  the  help  of  several 
deputy  sheriffs.  If  a  dangerous  criminal  defies  the  law, 

69 


the  sheriff  calls  on  all  good  citizens  to  help  him,  and 
these  citizens  are  sworn  in  as  policemen  for  the  occasion. 
The  sheriff  and  his  helpers  then  go,  with  guns  and 
pistols,  and  arrest  the  lawbreaker.  Often  sheriffs  and 
deputies  are  killed  in  the  doing  of  their  duty,  but 
danger  does  not  deter  them.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
there  are  no  regular  policemen  in  the  country,  life 


I  COURTHOUSE  AT  WILLIAMSBURG,  JAMES  CITY  COUNTY,  VA. 

and  property  are  safer  there  than  in  cities.     Crime 
is  rare  in  the  country  at  a  distance  from  cities. 

The  Courthouse. — Each  county  has  a  county  seat 
which  corresponds  to  the  capital  of  a  state  or  to  Wash- 
ington, the  capital  of  the  nation.  At  the  county  seat 
are  the  courthouse,  the  clerk's  office,  and  the  jail. 
The  courthouse  and  the  clerk's  office  correspond  to  the 
city  hall  of  the  town.  There  cases  are  tried  before 

70 


the  circuit  court,  records  are  preserved  and  examined, 
and  taxes  are  paid.  Prisoners  are  kept  in  the  county 
jail.  Most  of  the  county  officials,  such  as  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  the  sheriff,  the  treasurer,  and  the 
commonwealth's  attorney,  have  their  offices  at  the 
county  seat.  You  have,  no  doubt,  often  visited  your 
county  seat  and  seen  the  courthouse  and  other  buildings. 
Perhaps  you  have  been  there  on  court  day,  when  cases 
were  being  tried  and  the  people  for  miles  around  came 
to  hear  them.  When  you  are  grown,  you  will  have 
to  do  your  part  as  a  citizen  of  your  county.  You  will 
serve  on  juries;  you  will  vote  for  the  county  officials 
and  you  will  pay  taxes — perhaps  you  will  run  for  the 
legislature  and  represent  your  county  at  the  state 
capital. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  leading  crops  of  your  county. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  manufactured  articles  Vhich  your  county  sends 
to  other  sections. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  food  products  brought  into  your  county. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  your  county  officers  and  lell  their  duties. 

5.  Invite  a  citizen  to  talk  to  your  club  on  the  early  history  of  your 
county. 

6.  Discuss  in  class  this  question:  Which  is  the  better  place  in  which  to 
live,  the  city  or  the  country? 

7.  Draw  a  map  of  your  county  showing  the  county  seat,  the  principal 
towns  and  villages,  rivers,  railroads,  and  improved  highways. 

8.  Draw  another  map  showing  where  schools  might  well  be  consolidated. 


71 


CHAPTER  XII 

OUR   STATE 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  a  larger  unit,  the  state;  and  (2) 
to  carry  out  some  plans  that  will  make  you  more  familiar 
with  your  state. 

Work  of  the  State.— We  have  seen  that  tjie  home, 
school,  and  church  are  communities.  We  have  also 
given  some  study  to  larger  communities  made  up  of 
homes,  churches,  and  schools — the  city  and  county. 
Wre  come  now  to  a  still  larger  community,  made  up  of 
cities  and  counties — the  state.  In  this  chapter  we 
shall  learn  some  of  the  things  the  state  does  for  its 
citizens.  Just  as  the  city  and  county  perform  certain 
duties,  the  state  does  certain  other  things  necessary 
to  the  welfare  of  its  citizens.  The  city  and  county 
take  care  of  the  streets  and  roads,  give  police  and 
fire  protection,  keep  up  schools,  and  care  for  the  health 
of  the  community.  The  work  of  the  state  is  similar, 
but  in  addition  it  has  other  -activities  that  counties 
and  cities  do  not  attempt. 

Colleges  and  Public  Schools.— All  counties  and 
cities  have  schools  and  high  schools,  and  some  cities 
have  colleges.  .  The  state  maintains  a  university  for 
the  people  of  the  whole  state,  as  the  University  of 
Virginia,  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  and  the 
University  of  Indiana.  State  universities  usually  have 
schools  of  law  and  medicine  in  addition  to  under- 
graduate college  courses.  Besides  the  universities,  the 

73 


states,  aided  by  the  federal  government,  maintain 
agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  such  as  the 
Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  and 
the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute.  They  maintain 
normal  schools  and  colleges,  and  in  some  instances 
colleges  of  other  kinds,  such  as  the  Virginia  Military 
Institute,  and  The  Citadel,  of  South  Carolina,  which 
are  military  schools  much  like  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  at  West  Point.  The  states  spend  millions 
of  dollars  each  year  in  keeping  up  these  universities  and 
colleges,  some  of  which,  as  the  University  of  Michigan, 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  the  University  of 
Illinois,  are  among  the  foremost  institutions  of  learning 
in  the  world.  Besides  these  higher  institutions,  the 
state  aids  in  maintaining  the  public  schools  in  the  cities 
and  counties.  In  some  states,  a  community  receives  a 
grant  of  money  from  the  state  to  aid  in  building  high 
schools  on  condition  that  the  community  itself  raises  a 
certain  sum. 

Hospitals. — The  state  also  supports  hospitals  for 
the  insane,  who  are  kept  in  these  institutions  at  the 
expense  of  the  taxpayers.  We  believe  that  it  is  better 
for  the  government  to  care  for  these  unfortunate 
people  than  to  have  them  as  a  burden  on  their  families 
or  their  communities.  In  some  states,  there  are  also 
institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  where  they  receive 
a  training  which  often  enables  them  io  earn  a  living. 
Sanatoriums  for  consumptives  are  maintained  by 
most  states.  These  valuable  hospitals  restore  to 
health  many  people  who  lack  the  means  to  go  to  private 
sanatoriums. 

Imprisonment. — Counties  and  cities  keep  jails  for 

74 


the  imprisonment  of  persons  awaiting  trial  or  those 
convicted  of  small  offenses.  Imprisonment  for  seri- 
ous crimes  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  state.  Persons 
found  guilty  of  stealing  large  sums,  or  of  burglary,  or 
of  manslaughter,  or  sometimes  of  murder,  are  sentenced 
to  the  penitentiary  for  terms  varying  from  two  years 
to  a  lifetime.  In  this  prison  are  electric  chairs  or 
gallows,  by  which  persons  who  have  been  convicted  of 
murder,  or  some  other  "capital"  crime,  are  put  to 
death. 

Good  Roads. — In  recent  years  the  states  have 
created  highway  departments  to  assist  the  counties  in 
building  good  roads.  In  some  states,  notably  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  North  Carolina,  millions  of 
dollars  have  been  spent  in  this  work.  The  highway 
departments  keep  engineers  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
road  making  is  properly  done. 

The  Governor. — The  head  of  the  state  government, 
or  the  chief  executive  officer,  is  the  governor.  He  is 
elected  for  different  terms  in  different  states,  usually 
two  or  four  years.  The  various  departments  of  the 
state  government  are  under  the  general  direction  of 
the  governor;  he  has  many  duties.  He  appoints  some 
officers  and  sometimes  removes  them.  la  some  states 
he  appoints  supreme  court  judges.  He  proposes 
measures  to  the  legislature  and  vetoes  bills.  The 
governor  takes  part  in  most  of  the  honorary  activities 
of  the  state:  if  a  statue  is  unveiled,  he  is  usually 
present  to  make  a  speech;  if  a  great  man  visits  the 
state,  the  governor  welcomes  him;  he  also  makes 
addresses  at  school  and  college  commencements. 
Another  important  duty  of  the  governor  is  to  provide 

75 


for  the  protection  of  the  people  in  cases  which  the 
police  of  the  cities  and  the  sheriffs  of  the  counties  can- 
not handle.  Sometimes  a  riot  breaks  out  and  much 
damage  is  done.  The  rioters  may  be  so  numerous  that 
they  are  able  to  defy  the  police.  Then  the  governor 
calls  out  the  soldiers,  or  militia,  of  the  state  and  sends 
them  to  the  scene  of  the  riot  to  restore  order. 

The  Governor  and  Jerry. — The  governor  encour- 
ages all  kinds  of  movements  tending  to  aid  the  state. 
A  few  years  ago  a  boy  named  Jerry  received  a  letter 
from  the  governor  of  his  state  inviting  the  lad  to  visit 
him  in  his  office  in  the  capitol.  Jerry  was  excited  at 
receiving  a  personal  invitation  from  the  chief  executive 
and  gladly  accepted  it.  He  lived  on  a  farm  several 
miles  from  the  railroad,  but  his  father  drove  him  to 
the  station,  bought  him  a  ticket,  and  saw  him  off  to 
the  capital.  Jerry  arrived  in  the  city  and  went  to  the 
capitol  building.  When  he  entered  the  governor's 
outer  office  in  the  capitol,  he  found  a  large  room 
crowded  with  people  waiting  to  see  the  great  man  and 
he  felt  very  small  and  young:  he  supposed  that  he 
would  have  to  wait  his  turn.  But,  on  the  contrary, 
some  one  came  to  him  and  conducted  him  into  the 
governor's  private  office.  There  the  governor  greeted 
the  boy  warmly,  shook  hands  with  him,  patted  him 
on  the  back,  and  finally  pinned  on  his  coat  a  beautiful 
gold  medal.  Needless  to  say,  Jerry  felt  very  proud  at 
being  so  highly  honored.  Why  do  you  suppose  he 
received  a  medal  from  the  governor?  Because  he 
was  the  champion  corn  grower  of  South  Carolina, 
having  raised  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  bushels 
of  corn  on  one  acre  of  land.  The  governor  knew 

76 


that  by  honoring  Jerry  for  his  ability  and  industry 
he  was  encouraging  other  boys  to  do  likewise,  and 
so  aiding  the  development  of  the  community. 

The  Courts. — There  is  also  the  judicial  branch  of 
state  governments.  The  courts  that  try  small  offenses 
and  small  "civil  cases"  in  cities  are  city  courts  and  are 
maintained  by  the  city.  The  other  courts  are  state 
courts.  The  lowest  of  these  are  the  justices'  courts 
in  the  counties;  then  come  county  courts  or  circuit 
courts.  Most  states  are  divided  into  circuits  or  dis- 
tricts, composed  of  several  counties,  and  judges  ap- 
pointed by  the  state,  or  elected  by  the  people,  preside 
over  them.  The  highest  court  in  the  state  is  the 
supreme  court,  which  deals  with  all  cases  brought  up 
to  it  from  the  lower  courts  for  retrial.  In  some  states 
there  are  still  other  courts  of  a  special  nature. 

The  Legislature. — We  have  studied  in  this  chapter 
two  branches  of  state  government — .the  executive  and 
judicial.  The  executive  is  the  branch,  presided  over  by 
the  governor,  which  has  to  do  with  the  various  depart- 
ments. The  courts  form  the  judicial  branch.  There  is 
still  another  branch — the  legislative.  This  is  the  law- 
making  part  of  the  government,  and  the  lawmaking 
body  of  the  state  is  known  as  the  legislature.  The 
members  of  the  legislature  are  elected  by  the  vote  of 
the  people.  It  meets  in  the  capitol  at  certain  periods 
and  passes  laws  for  the  government  of  the  state. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Prepare  a  map  showing  the  various  state  institutions  such  as  col- 
leges, normal  schools,  and  hospitals. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  more  important  state  officers,  telling  their 
duties. 

77 


3.  Answer  these  questions: 

.    How  did  your  state  get  its  name? 
When  was  it  admitted  to  the  Union? 
.  What  is  the  capital  city? 
WTho  is  the  present  governor? 
\Vho  are  your  representatives  in  the  legislature? 
What  great  men  were  born  in  your  state? 
W7hat  is  its  population? 
What  are  its  principal  industries? 
How  does  the  state  help  to  support  your  school? 
How  does  the  state  help  to  build  good  roads? 
What  are  some  ways  in  which  the  state  helps  the  farmer? 
Why  is  your  state  "the  best  state  in  the  Union"? 
How  does  the  state  get  the  necessary  money  to  do  its  work? 
Why  are  some  lawbreakers  sent  to  the  penitentiary  while  others 
are  sent  to  jail? 

4.  Invite  one  of  your  representatives  in  the  legislature  to  talk  to  you 
about  how  laws  are  made. 

5.  Collect  pamphlets  from  your  state  department  of  agriculture  and 
from  the  chambers  of  commerce  of  various  cities  for  your  classroom  library. 

6.  At  the  next  social  meeting  of  the  club  let  each  member  represent  a 
state  institution  or  a  state  officer.    Make  this  a  guessing  contest. 


78 


CHAPTER  XIII 

OUR  NATION 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  largest  unit,  the  nation; 
and  (2)  to  tell  of  some  of  its  special  activities. 

The  United  States. — We  have  seen  that  homes  make 
up  cities  and  counties,  and  that  cities  and  counties 
make  up  states.  We  are  to  consider  now  the  com- 
munity that  states  make  up — the  largest  community 
of  which  we  are  members.  This  is  the  nation.  The 
name  of  our  nation  is  the  United  States  of  America, 
though  we  speak  of  it  as  the  United  States,  and  abbre- 
viate it  as  U.  S.  We  sometimes  playfully  apply  the 
letters  U.  S.  to  refer  to  "Uncle  Sam,"  who  is  shown  in 
comic  pictures  as  a  tall,  thin  man  with  stars  on  his 
coat  and  stripes  on  his  trousers.  It  would  be  better, 
perhaps,  to  say  that  the  two  letters  stand  for  US;  for 
our  country  consists  simply  of  the  men,  women,  and 
children  who  live  under  the  star-spangled  banner.  The 
United  States  is  a  country  that  belongs  to  the  whole 
people. 

The  Land  of  the  Free. — Sometimes  the  United 
States  is  called  "the  Land  of  the  Free."  Do  you  know 
what  is  meant  by  that  term?  Before  the  Revolution, 
the  United  States  consisted  of  colonies  of  England, 
subject  to  the  English  king.  They  could  not  make 
laws  without  the  king's  consent,  and  the  English 

t'arliament  sought  to  lay  taxes  on  them  for  the  benefit 
>f  England.     This  led  to  the  memorable  American 
79 


Revolution  (1775-1783),  which  resulted  in  the  United 
States  winning  its  liberty  under  the  leadership  of 
George  Washington;  since  that  time  the  American 
people  have  had  no  king  to  govern  them.  The  chief 
ruler  is  the  President.  In  1776,  Thomas  Jefferson 
wrote  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  that  all  men 
have  the  right  to  be  free.  In  America  the  people 
elect  their  President.  Congress,  which  consists  of  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  is  also  elected 
by  the  people.  In  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  where 
Congress  meets,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
sits.  This  is  the  highest  court  in  the  land  and  the 
members  are  appointed  by  the  President  for  life. 
Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  is  a  city 
of  wide  streets,  beautiful  parks,  and  fine  government 
buildings.  You  will  probably  visit  the  national  capital 
some  day  in  order  to  see  these  buildings  and  Congress 
in  session.  Then  you  may  wonder  if  you  are  destined 
to  be  a  Congressman  and  to  take  part  in  making  your 
country's  laws. 

Coinage. — The  national  government  has  many 
important  duties.  One  of  the  principal  things  it  does 
is  to  make  money.  Once  upon  a  time  the  states  made 
money,  and  even  cities  have  done  so.  This  may  seem 
odd  to  you,  but  it  is  a  fact.  In  the  Revolutionary  War, 
both  the  United  States  and  the  states  issued  large 
quantities  of  paper  money ;  but  after  the  United  States 
adopted  its  present  system  of  government,  under  what 
is  called  the  Constitution,  the  right  of  making  money 
was  taken  away  from  the  states  and  from  all  other 
bodies.  Only  the  national  government  makes  money. 
The  United  States  makes  the  coin  used  in  the  country 

80 


in  several  money  factories,  called  mints.  Perhaps  you 
will  visit  the  great  mint  at  Philadelphia  some  day. 
Here  metallic  money  is  minted.  Red-hot  gold,  silver, 
nickel,  and  copper  run  into  molds,  and  great  presses 
stamp  imprints  on  the  metal  disks  as  they  come  from 
the  molds.  Then  the  coins  are  ready  to  be  exchanged 
for  food  and  clothing  and  everything  else  that  people 
buy. 

Paper  Money. — The  United  States  makes  paper 
money  in  the  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing  at 
Washington.  These  are  silver  and  gold  certificates 
and  the  bank  notes  issued  by  the  Federal  Reserve 
System  and  by  other  authorized  banks.  These  forms 
of  paper  money  vary  in  color  and  in  wording  but 
are  otherwise  similar.  There  is  not  much  difference 
between  one-dollar  and  one-thousand-dollar  bills.  Have 
you  ever  seen  a  hundred-dollar  or  a  thousand-dollar 
bill  ?  The  government  even  issues  a  ten-thousand-dollar 
bill,  but  few  such  bills  are  made  because  people  do  not 
need  large  single  pieces  of  money.  Imagine  going  into 
a  store  and  asking  the  storekeeper  to  change  a  ten- 
thousand-dollar  bill!  Do  you  think  he  could  do  it? 
Only  workmen  of  the  highest  skill  are  employed  in 
engraving  paper  money,  and  only  fine  paper  of  a 
singular  kind  is  used.  This  paper  is  full  of  silk  threads 
and  other  marks  in  order  to  prevent  persons,  called 
counterfeiters,  from  trying  to  make  money  just  like  it 
and  deceiving  and  robbing  people  with  the  false  bills. 
Counterfeit  money  was  once  very  plentiful;  it  is  now 
rare,  because  the  difficulties  of  making  an  exact  imi- 
tation of  bills  are  so  great  that  counterfeiters  are 
usually  promptly  found  out  and  arrested. 

81 


The  Post  Office. — Another  duty  undertaken  by  the 
national  government,  and  not  by  the  city  and  the 
county  or  the  state,  is  that  of  sending  and  distributing 
mail.  Once  upon  a  time  letters  were  sent  by  private 
business  companies,  just  as  express  packages  are 
today.  But  this  was  such  an  expensive  system  that 
the  government  took  over  the  post  office  itself  and 


A  PARCEL  POST  DELIVERY  TRUCK 

charged  a  small  fee  for  carrying  letters.  Benjamin 
Franklin  established  the  postal  system  of  the  United 
States  before  the  Revolution.  When  he  became  Post- 
master-General of  the  colonies,  there  were  only  seventy- 
five  post  offices  in  America;  now  there  are  many 
thousand.  When  Franklin  was  postal  chief  it  took 
weeks  to  send  a  letter  from  New  York  to  Charleston; 
now  it  takes  only  a  few  days  to  send  a  letter  from  New 

82 


York  to  San  Francisco.  Thousands  of  people  are 
employed  as  postmasters  and  clerks,  and  the  amount 
of  mail  handled  amounts  to  millions  of  tons  annually. 
Not  only  letters  are  carried:  you  may  send  almost 
any  package  you  wish  by  the  Parcel  Post  for  a  small 
fee  and  you  may  send  money  by  the  Money  Order. 
You  may  also  deposit  the  money  you  save  in  the 
Postal  Savings  Banks.  The  government  not  only 
delivers  mail  in  the  city  but  in  the«  country  as  well. 
The  Rural  Free  Delivery  takes  mail  to  every  part  of 
the  country — in  some  cases  many  miles  from  any  town. 
The  accuracy  and  speed  of  the  system  are  such  that 
letters  are  seldom  lost  and  are  sent  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another  in  a  short  time.  Letters  that  are 
lost  are  usually  lost  because  of  the  carelessness  of  the 
writers.  Every  year  millions  of  letters  go  to  the  Dead 
Letter  Office  at  Washington  because  the  writers  have 
addressed  them  illegibly  or  because  they  have  sent 
them  to  the  wrong  addresses. 

The  Government  is  Yours. — You  see  that  the 
national  government  does  a  great  many  things  for  you. 
The  money  you  earn  and  spend  is  good  because  the 
authority  and  credit  of  the  government  are  behind  it. 
The  letters  you  write  to  your  friends  go  for  a  trifling 
fee  to  their  addresses  because  the  government  carries 
them.  The  banking  system  of  the  country  is  largely 
under  the  management  of  the  government.  Later  on 
you  will  find  that  the  railroads  and  many  other  activi- 
ties of  the  country  are  mainly  under  governmental 
control.  The  government  works  for  you  and  belongs 
to  you.  The  President  in  the  White  House  is  taking 
measures  for  your  safety  and  welfare;  Congress  passes 

83 


laws  to  protect  you;  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  looks  out  for  your  rights  as  a  citizen.  If  you 
realize  that  the  national  government  is  yours,  you  will 
be  a  better  and  more  useful  citizen  because  you  will  be 
willing  to  do  your  part  toward  making  the  government 
a  success. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Name  as  many  different  postage  stamps  as  you  can. 

2.  Get  some  member  of  your  class  to  tell  how  to  send  a  package  by 
parcel  post. 

3.  Answer  these  questions: 

When  was  Washington  inaugurated  President  and  where? 
^ow  many  of  our  Presidents  have  been  assassinated? 
Can  you  name  some  things  which  the  nation  alone  has  the  right 

to  do? 

Who  is  your  Representative  in  Congress? 
Why  would  it  be  unwise  to  let  private  individuals  and  states 

issue  money? 
If  the  baby  at  home  should  tear  into  small  pieces  a  twenty-dollar 

bill,  would  there  be  any  way  to  redeem  it? 
Why  do  you  think  the  government  stopped  coining  one-dollar 

and  two-and-a-half-dollar  gold  pieces? 

f 


X 


84 


PART  TWO 
CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  REORGANIZED 
Problem:  To  reorganize  your  Junior  Citizens  Club. 

Reorganizing  Your  Club. — In  the  opening  chapter 
of  this  book  suggestions  were  given  for  organizing  your 
class  into  a  civics  club.  (See  page  13.)  The  first 
thing  to  do  on  resuming  the  study  of  civics  is  to  re- 
organize your  club  by  electing  a  full  set.  of  officers. 
The  next  step  is  to  plan  some  work  to  be  carried  on 
during  the  present  term.  Club  meetings  should  be 
held  weekly  or  at  least  twice  a  month.  You  are  now 
prepared  to  have  short  debates  at  your  meetings,  and 
you  may  wish  to  give  a  play  or  a  historical  pageant. 
Your  club  can  also  do  something  for  the  improvement 
of  the  community.  The  following  is  a  stenographic 
report  of  the  meeting  of  a  school  club.  Read  it  carefully. 
It  will  suggest  work  for  your  organization. 

A  MEETING  OF  A  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB 

TEACHER:  It  is  now  two  o'clock  and  time  for  the 
Junior  Citizens  Club  to  hold  its  regular  meeting.  The 
officers  will  come  forward  and  take  charge. 

The  president  and  secretary  advance  to  the  front 
of  the  room  and  occupy  chairs  at  the  teacher's  desk. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  We  will  open  our  meeting  by 
standing  and  repeating  our  class  pledge: 

85  \ 


We  will  never  bring  disgrace  to  our  school,  city,  or 
country. 

We  will  obey  our  school,  city,  and  country's  laws. 

We  will  stand  for  the  right,  with  others  or  alone. 

We  will  aid  the  poor,  the  old,  the  youtag,  and  all  who 
need  help. 

We  pledge  allegiance  to  the  flag  of  our  country  and  our 
earnest  efforts  to  keep  ourselves  worthy  of  that  flag. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  The  secretary  will  please  read 
the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting. 

The  secretary  reads  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting 
from  a  blank  book  kept  for  the  purpose. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  Are  the  minutes  correct? 

FRANK  BROWN:  Mr.  President,  the  minutes,  as 
read,  state  that  I  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Program  Committee.  This  is  not  correct.  I  was 
added  to  the  Committee  on  School  Grounds. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  You  are  right.  The  secretary 
will  please  make  this  correction.  If  there  are  no  other 
objections  to  the  minutes,  I  declare  them  approved. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  We  will  now  have  the  report  of 
the  treasurer. 

TREASURER:  Mr.  President,  I  make  the  following 
report : 

Balance  on  hand  from  last  month .  $4.60 

Receipts  from  dues .      .65 

Profits  on  sale  of  candy  for  library 

books  . ,  .2.10 


Total  balance  on  hand.  .  $7.35 

THE  PRESIDENT:  If  there  is  no  objection,  the 
treasurer's  report  will  be  filed  with  the  secretary,  who 
will  record  it  in  the  minutes.  We  will  now  hear  from 
our  standing  committees. 

86 


SUSIE  LOWE:  Mr.  President,  as  chairman  of  the 
Room  Committee  I  wish  to  report  that  we  have  talked 
with  two  members  of  the  club  who  continually  drop 
paper  on  the  floor.  Both  have  promised  to  stop 
this  practice  and  they  seem  to  be  living  up  to  their 
promise.  I  wish  further  to  report  that  the  plants 
you  see  in  the  windows  were  given  to  the  class  by 
Mrs.  Bowers,  the  mother  of  our  fellow  club  member, 
Frank  Bowers. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  What  will  you  do  with  this  report? 

MAUDE  ELAM:  Mr.  President,  I  move  that  our 
secretary  write  a  note  of  thanks  to  Mrs.  Bowers  for 
the  flowers  she  has  given  us. 

ABRAHAM  LEVY:  Mr.  President,  I  second  Maude's 
motion. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  All  who  favor  this  motion  will 
say  "Aye."  The  vote  is  unanimous.  The  secretary 
will  write  the  letter  and  read  it  tomorrow  at  the  Current 
Events  period. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  We  will  now  hear  from  the 
Committee  on  School  Grounds. 

JAMES  CABOT  :  We  think  that  too  much  waste 
paper  is  left  on  the  school  grounds  at  the  noon  hour. 
We  went  to  our  principal  and  asked  him  to  get  two 
waste  paper  barrels.  He  agreed  to  do  this  if  our  club 
would  appoint  a  committee  of  three  to  report  to  him 
all  who  fail  to  put  lunch  wrappers  "n  the  barrels.  We 
therefore  recommend  the  appointment  of  such  a 
committee. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  What  will  you  do  with  this 
report? 

ADA  WORKS:  Mr.  President,  I  don't  like  this  plan. 

87 


1  think  that  waste  paper  barrels  should  be  furnished. 
But  instead  of  reporting  to  the  principal  those  who 
fail  to  put  their  lunch  wrappers  in  these  barrels,  I 
think  we  should  report  them  to  their  clubs.  I  do  not 
believe  that  many  pupils  of  this  school  will  throw 
waste  paper  on  the  ground  if  barrels  are  put  in  con- 
venient places.  If  a  few  pupils  are  found  guilty  of 
doing  this,  their  clubs  should  try  them  and  punish 
them.  I  therefore  move  that  Mr.  Williams,  our  prin- 
cipal, be  requested  to  get  the  barrels;  but  that  he 
also  be  asked  to  leave  to  the  pupils  the  matter  of 
seeing  that  waste  paper  is  put  in  them. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  Is  this  motion  seconded? 

BEATRICE  WADE:  Mr.  President,  I  second  this 
motion. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  All  in  favor  of  this  motion  say 
"Aye."  All  who  are  opposed  say  "No."  The  "Ayes" 
have  it;  and  the  motion  is  carried. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  Are  there  reports  from  any  other 
standing  committees?  If  not,  we  will  now  hear  from 
the  Special  Committee  on  the  Classroom  Library. 

WILLIAM  COBB:  Mr.  President,  we  recommend 
that  the  following  books  be  bought  for  our  class 
library: 

Brooks'  Stories  of  South  America  ....  $  .80 
Williamson's  Life  of  Lee 60 


Total $1.40 

THE  PRESIDENT:  You  have  heard  the  recommenda- 
tion of  William  Cobb.    What  will  you  do  with  it? 

JANET  BOYD:  Mr.  President,  I  move  that  the  books 
be  bought. 

88 


OSCAR  SIMMS:  I  second  the  motion. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  All  who  favor  this  motion  say 
"Aye";  all  opposed,  "No."  The  motion  is  carried. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  We  will  now  have  the  special 
program.  Irma  Brownlow,  the  chairman  of  the  Pro- 
gram Committee,  will  please  come  forward  and  take 
charge  of  the  meeting. 

IRMA  BROWNLOW:  We  will  have  a  debate  on  the 
following  subject:  Resolved,  That  every  boy  and 
girl  should  graduate  from  high  school. 

The  debaters  on  the  affirmative  are: 

FRANK  BUTZNER 
MILDRED  SMITH 

Those  representing  the  negative  are: 

JAMES  SIMPSON 
REBECCA  FAIRCLOTH 

The  first  speaker  was  Frank  Butzner.  Frank  was 
followed  by  James  Simpson,  after  which  the  other 
two  speakers  presented  their  arguments.  The  rebuttal 
then  came:  that  is,  an  opportunity  was  given  each 
debater  to  answer  arguments  advanced  by  his  op- 
ponents. After  the  debate  had  closed,  the  club  mem- 
bers decided  by  a  vote  of  twenty-eight  to  six  that 
the  affirmative  side  had  won. 

IRMA  BROWNLOW:  This  completes  the  program. 
I  will  now  turn  the  meeting  back  to  the  president. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  Is  there  any  other  matter  to 
come  before  the  club?  If  not,  I  await  a  motion  to 
adjourn. 

89 


ADA  WHITE:  I  move  that  we  adjourn. 

ZIHLA  KAPLAN:    I  second  the  motion. 

THE  PRESIDENT:  All  who  favor  adjournment  will 
say  "Aye";  all  opposed,  "No."  The  motion  is  carried, 
and  the  club  stands  adjourned. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Reorganize  your  club. 

2.  Appoint  standing   committees:   committees  for  improvement,  for 
entertainment,  and  to  visit  the  sick. 

3.  Write  new  songs,  new  cheers,  and  a  class  slogan. 


Courtesy  of  Miss  Ernilie  Yunker 

HANGING  MAY  BASKET  AT  CHILDREN'S  HOSPITAL 


90 


CHAPTER  XV 

OCCUPATIONS 

Problems:  (1)  To  make  a  study  of  occupations;  and 
(2)  to  discuss  your  future  vocation. 

What  do  you  intend  to  make  of  yourself?  What 
is  the  calling  in  life  you  wish  to  follow?  Are  you  going 
to  be  a  farmer,  or  a  business  man,  or  a  lawyer,  or  a 
doctor,  or  a  preacher,  or  a  teacher,  or  an  accountant, 
or  a  mechanic,  or  a  painter,  or  a  plasterer,  or  a  car- 
penter, or  a  mason,  or  what? 

Making  Up  Your  Mind.— Perhaps  you  have  not 
made  up  your  mind  yet  as  to  your  life  work.  Perhaps 
you  have  not  given  the  matter  much  thought.  Pos- 
sibly you  are  so  absorbed  in  your  school  and  your 
play  that  you  have  not  taken  time  to  think  what  you 
will  do  when  your  school  life  is  ended  and  you  enter 
the  great  world.  The  sooner  you  make  up  your  mind 
as  to  the  vocation  you  are  to  follow  the  better  for  you, 
because  you  can  then  shape  your  education  and  training 
for  a  definite  end.  The  world  is  full  of  people  who  drift 
about  from  one  occupation  to  another  without  ever 
knowing  what  they  really  wish  to  do.  Such  people 
seldom  succeed.  They  hold  minor  positions  all  their 
lives  and  have  little  chance  to  reveal  their  talents. 
They  never  function  properly,  we  say. 

Choosing  Early. — On  the  other  hand,  a  few  long- 
headed people  make  up  their  minds  early  in  life  as  to 
what  calling  they  will  pursue.  This  gives  them  the 

91 


advantage  of  being  on  the  lookout  for  everything  that 
may  help  them  to  realize  their  aim.  The  girl  who 
decides  at  the  age  of  thirteen  to  be  a  teacher  has  an 
advantage  over  the  girl  who  simply  drifts  into  teaching 
at  the  end  of  her  schooling:  the  former  will  make  a 
better  teacher  than  the  latter.  The  boy  who  decides 
to  be  a  doctor  at  an  early  age  will  pay  special  attention 
to  science  in  his  school  work  and  will  go  to  college 
better  prepared  to  study  for  his  profession  than  the 
boy  who  enters  medicine  merely  because  it  seems  to 
be  a  profitable  occupation.  The  same  thing  is  true  of 
the  boy  who  expects  to  be  a  lawyer,  or  preacher,  or 
anything  else.  Nature  decides  for  many  of  us.  You 
may  see  the  future  business  man  trading  with  the 
other  boys  on  the  playground  and  getting  the  best  of 
his  bargains.  The  future  lawyer  is  usually  a  keener 
debater  than  the  other  boys;  the  future  newspaper 
reporter  writes  for  the  school  paper;  the  future  me- 
chanic knows  all  about  automobiles;  the  future  sales- 
man is  noted  for  his  persuasive  talk. 

Few  Callings  Once. — In  early  times  there  were 
few  callings,  because  people  had  not '  specialized  then 
as  they  have  today.  A  man  would  be  a  farmer — and 
nine  out  of  ten  men  in  the  United  States  were  farmers— 
or  he  might  become  a  clerk  in  a  store  or  a  mechanic. 
Only  a  few  men  became  lawyers,  doctors,  and  preachers, 
partly  because  there  was  not  a  great  demand  for  pro- 
fessional men  in  those  days  and  partly  because  edu- 
cation was  very  expensive  and  difficult  to  get.  Nobody 
could  make  a  living  in  literary  vocations,  and  teachers 
had  to  be  instructors  in  private  schools  or  open  schools 
of  their  own. 

92 


Modern  Vocations. — In  the  last  hundred  years  most 
modern  vocations  have  come  into  existence.  Railroads 
give  employment  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  only  public  means 
of  transportation  by  land  was  the  stage  coach,  and 
there  were  few  stage  coaches.  Automobiles  have  opened 
a  number  of  occupations  that  did  not  exist  twenty -five 
years  ago,  when  private  transportation  was  by  horse- 
drawn  vehicles.  A  few  generations  since  there  were 
no  insurance  agents,  stenographers,  typewriters,  real 
estate  dealers,  electricians,  house  painters,  photogra- 
phers, trained  nurses,  brokers;  and  hundreds  of  other 
callings  now  employing  thousands  of  people  were 
unthought  of.  This  diversity  of  occupations  is  at  once 
a  blessing  and  a  drawback:  it  gives  us  a  far  wider 
range  of  choice  than  our  ancestors  had,  but  at  the  same 
time  it  puts  us  in  danger  of  making  a  mistake  in  our 
choice.  With  so  many  roads  to  success  open,  we  are 
likely  to  enter  one  for  which  we  are  not  suited.  The 
occupation  that  one  likes  is  usually  best,  for  a  man 
or  woman  does  far  better  work  when  the  work  is 
congenial  than  when  it  is  not.  Indeed,  nothing  is 
more  difficult  than  to  succeed  in  a  distasteful  calling. 

Farming. — Although  the  range  of  vocations  is  so 
much  wider  today  than  even  one  generation  ago,  it 
nevertheless  remains  a  fact  that  farming  is  still  in  many 
ways  the  best  calling  of  all.  The  farmer  profits  by  the 
inventions  which  brought  so  many  new  occupations 
into  existence.  Labor-saving  machinery  makes  it 
cheaper  for  him  to  produce  crops  than  formerly;  and 
automobiles,  telephones,  and  radiophones  do  away 
with  the  old-time  loneliness  of  country  life.  The 

93 


farmer  who  owns  his  own  farm — if  it  is  fairly  good 
land — is  the  most  independent  of  all  men.  He  is  not 
worried  constantly,  as  nearly  all  city  dwellers  are,  by 
the  increasing  cost  of  living.  He  does  not  pay  rent 
and  he  makes  most  of  his  own  food.  In  bad  seasons  he 
will  not  save  much  money,  but  he  always  earns  a 
living.  He  has  far  more  leisure  than  any  other  class 
of  workers,  for  he  has  holiday  much  of  the  winter. 


A  HAYFIELD 

His  children  help  him  on  the  farm  instead  of  being  a 
great  expense,  as  children  are  in  the  city.  In  many 
ways  the  farmer  in  the  long  run  of  years  has  an  ad- 
vantage over  other  men. 

Other  Outdoor  Vocations. — Other  outdoor  occupa- 
tions are:  civil  engineering,  structural  iron  work, 
house  painting,  insurance  soliciting,  lumbering,  forestry, 
street  cleaning,  road  making,  automobile  driving.  Out- 

94 


door  work  is  usually  healthier  than  indoor  employment, . 
but  the  number  of  outdoor  occupations  is  far  smaller 
than  of  indoor  vocations.  With  the  exception  of 
farmers,  the  bod£  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
do  their  work  in  houses. 

Indoor  Occupations. — The  great  world  of  business 
and  manufacture  is  mainly  an  indoor  realm.  Merchants 
and  business  men  of  many  sorts,  clerks,  stenographers, 
typewriters,  secretaries,  lawyers,  doctors,  dentists, 
factory  and  mill  workers,  do  their  work  indoors. 
Indoor  work  is  not  injurious  to  the  health,  provided 
the  worker  gets  outdoor  exercise  after  hours  and  on 
Sundays.  In  many  ways  it  is  better  than  outdoor 
work,  for  there  is  no  exposure  to  bad  weather  and  less 
hard  manual  labor. 

Skilled  and  Unskilled  Occupations. — Nearly  all 
people  with  any  education  are  skilled  workers.  In 
fact,  this  is  the  main  advantage  of  education,  for 
skilled  workers  are  paid  more  and  have  easier  working 
conditions  than  unskilled  laborers.  The  most  highly 
skilled  occupations  are  the  professions,  which  require 
years  of  training.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think,  however, 
that  they  pay  better  than  other  occupations.  The 
callings  that  pay  the  best  for  the  amount  of  training 
and  education  involved  are  skilled  trades.  In  propor- 
tion to  their  education,  locomotive  engineers  are 
among  the  highest  paid  workers  in  the  world.  Print- 
ers, carpenters,  masons,  paper  hangers,  plasterers, 
structural  steel  workers,  steel  mill  workers,  and,  in 
fact,  nearly  all  members  of  the  skilled  trades  receive 
good  wages.  Some  of  these  workers  make  more  money 
than  the  average  doctor,  lawyer,  or  business  man. 

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Few  clerks  in  business  offices  get  as  much  pay  as  the 
workers  in  skilled  trades  and  they  are  not  as  indepen- 
dent. Boys  and  girls  have  an  excellent  chance  in 
junior  high  school  to  take  vocational  classes.  These 
classes  are  in  wood  and  metal  work,  printing,  electricity, 
millinery,  dressmaking,  and  other  subjects.  By  giving 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  SCHOOL 

attention  to  them  one  may  find  that  he  has  a  talent 
for  some  skilled  trade — a  talent  the  cultivation  of 
which  will  lead  to  success  in  life. 

Unskilled  Labor. — Contrasted  with  the  skilled 
trades  is  what  is  known  as  unskilled  labor.  This  latter 
range  of  vocations  includes  ditch  digging,  street  work 
of  most  kinds,  house  wrecking,  shifting  materials, 


the  rough  labor  of  railway  construction,  mining,  and  a 
number  of  other  occupations.  Unskilled  labor  is  poor- 
ly paid  in  comparison  with  skilled  work,  though  much 
better  paid  now  than  formerly.  Few  people  that  pass 
through  high  school  become  unskilled  laborers.  The 
work  is  too  severe,  the  pay  too  small,  the  chance  of 
advancement  too  poor  to  make  this  kind  of  occupa- 
tion attractive. 

Practical  Education.— Make  up  your  mind  that  you 
will  have  a  good  practical  education — one  that  will  defi- 
nitely fit  you  for  some  bread- winning  occupation.  Much 
of  education  is  of  little  practical  benefit,  as,  for  instance, 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language.  Formerly  most  edu- 
cation was  of  this  sort,  and  students  left  high  school  or 
college  poorly  fitted  for  the  battle  of  life.  Modern  edu- 
cation, however,  is  all  the  time  becoming  more  practical 
and  therefore  more  beneficial.  All  that  you  learn  at 
school  and  high  school  will  prove  of  value  to  you  in  the 
struggle  of  making  a  living.  And  if  you  go  to  college 
resolved  to  secure  a  useful  education,  you  may  select 
studies  that  will  do  much  to  insure  your  success  in  life. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Give  the  laws  concerning  child  labor  in  your  state. 

2.  Debate  this  question:    Resolved,  That  the  work  of  a  farmer  is  more 
useful  than  that  of  a  merchant. 

3.  Write  a  short  paper  showing  that  an  early  choice  of  an  occupation 
is  necessary  to  success  in  life. 

4.  Plan  and  give  a  pantomime  in  which  the    members    of  the  club 
represent  the  various  occupations. 


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CHAPTER  XVI 

KEEPING  THINGS   CLEAN 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  relation  of  cleanliness  to 
health;  and  (2)  to  organize  a  campaign  against  mosquitoes, 
flies,  and  other  pests. 

Cleanliness  and  Health. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant dates  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  is 
1850.  In  that  year  the  modern  bathtub  was  invented. 
Few  inventions  have  done  more  for  the  happiness 
and  welfare  of  humanity.  Because  of  this  invention 
the  people  of  the  United  States  adopted  the  habit 
of  cleanliness,  and  the  example  of  the  United  States  is 
converting  the  whole  world.  People  have  found  that 
they  are  far  healthier,  and  therefore  far  happier,  when 
they  are  clean. 

Clean  Houses. — In  former  times  many  people 
cared  little  for  the  cleanliness  of  their  houses.  This 
was  natural,  because  they  cared  little  for  the  cleanli- 
ness of  their  bodies.  Clean  houses  came  with  clean 
bodies.  It  is  considered  a  disgrace  now  for  a  family 
to  live  in  a  dusty,  dirty  house.  Trash  that  once  was 
allowed  to  lie  on  the  floor  is  removed,  and  floors  are 
swept  and  furniture  is  dusted.  Dust  is  dangerous,  as 
people  have  come  to  learn.  This  has  led  to  the  use 
of  vacuum  cleaners,  which  take  up  dirt  and  dust 
without  letting  particles  fly  into  the  air.  Clean  floors, 
dustless  furniture,  and  clean  beds  insure  us  against 
many  sicknesses  which  used  to  play  havoc  with  hu- 

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inanity.  Dirt  and  disease  go  together.  If  you  wish 
to  be  healthy,  keep  yourself  clean  and  live  in  clean 
surroundings. 

Clean  Streets. — People  who  have  neat  houses  wish 
to  live  in  a  clean  city.  Once  upon  a  time  the  streets 
of  cities  were  filled  with  rubbish  of  all  kinds.  They 
were  never  cleaned  by  the  city  government  and  were 
sometimes  inches  deep  in  mud.  On  busy  streets, 
where  there  was  constant  passing,  street  sweepers 
made  paths  across  the  mud,  for  which  they  received 
coppers  in  return.  All  this  is  changed.  Garbage, 
rubbish,  and  ashes  are  carted  away  and  destroyed. 
Trash  receptacles  are  kept  in  certain  places,  so  that 
people  will  not  throw  things  in  the  street.  In  some 
cities  rotary  street  sweepers  are  used.  In  others, 
the  streets  are  flushed  with  water  at  night,  the  best 
method  of  all.  Cities  that  wash  the  streets  regularly 
have  a  low  disease  rate. 

Clean  Yards  and  Beautiful. — Strangely  enough, 
many  people  are  still  somewhat  careless  about  their 
yards,  especially  back  yards.  In  cities  back  yards 
are  often  littered  with  waste  paper,  tin  cans,  and 
garbage.  In  the  country  you  sometimes  find  pigsties 
near  dwelling  houses  and  barnyards  covered  with 
rotten  straw  and  other  refuse.  Such  conditions  pro- 
mote disease.  It  is  not  difficult  to  remedy  them. 
A  few  hours'  work  each  week  will  make  your  back 
yard  a  healthful  and  beautiful  spot  instead  of  an 
eyesore.  Instead  of  weeds  you  may  have  beautiful 
flowers  blooming.  The  same  thing  applies  to  your 
school  lawn.  Is  it  ornamented  with  grass,  shrubbery, 
shade  trees  and  flowers,  or  is  it  just  a  bare,  unsightly 

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lot  covered  with  paper  and  ashes?  The  Junior  Citizens 
Club  should  do  something  each  year  to  make  the 
school  grounds  the  most  attractive  spot  in  the  whole 
community. 

Swatting  the  Fly. — One  of  the  ways  in  which  you 
can  help  to  make  things  clean  is  by  killing  flies  and 
by  destroying  their  breeding-places.  Kill  every  fly 


A  NEGLECTED  BACK  YARD 

you  see.  The  common  house  fly  is  more  dangerous 
to  the  human  race  than  all  the  lions,  tigers,  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  put  together:  it  is  a  spreader  of  disease. 
Fly-killing  is  a  matter  of  even  more  importance  in  the 
country  than  in  cities,  because  flies  are  more  numerous 
in  the  country  than  in  cities.  In  the  country,  where 
the  people  have  no  assistance  in  cleaning  up,  flies  still 
breed  numerously  in  stables  and  barnyards.  The 

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best  way  to  prevent  flies  is  to  keep  the  premises  so 
clean  that  they  will  have  no  breeding-places.  And 
when  one  of  the  pests  does  appear,  "Swat  the  fly!" 
should  be  the  cry  raised  immediately. 

Pure  Water. — Clean  water  is  our  prime  necessity. 
In  former  times  people  paid  little  attention  to  the 
cleanliness  of  water,  with  the  result  that  thousands 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

COVERING  FOOD  FROM  FLIES 

died  annually  from  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases. 
They  did  not  know  then  what  caused  these  ills.  When 
it  was  learned  that  water  is  the  chief  medium  in  which 
typhoid  is  conveyed,  cities  began  to  study  the  sources 
of  their  water  supply.  If  the  water  supply  comes  from 
lakes  or  streams,  care  is  usually  taken  to  see  that 
garbage  and  filth  are  removed  from  the  neighborhood. 
Sometimes  water  is  brought  from  great  distances  in 

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order  to  insure  purity:  New  York  City  is  supplied 
with  water  brought  from  the  Catskill  Mountains, 
a  hundred  miles  away.  In  some  cities  chemicals  are 
used  to  make  the  water  pure,  but  purified  water 
is  not  so  good  as  water  originally  pure.  Country 
people  now  take  pains  to  have  their  wells  and  springs 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  A  CITY 

clean.     They  know  that  if  they  do  not  they  are  likely 
to  be  sick. 

The  Pledge. — In  some  cities  clubs  have  been 
organized  to  further  the  great  work  of  making  cities 
cleaner  and  healthier.  The  following  is  the  pledge  taken 
by  the  members  of  a  "Keep  Your  City  Clean  Club" 
organized  in  a  large  city  school: 

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MOTTO 

I  will  do  all  in  my  power  to  make  a  cleaner  and  more 
beautiful  city. 

PLEDGE 

I  will  not  throw  paper,  fruit  skins,  or  other  trash  in  the 
streets,  alleys,  or  school  yard. 

I  will  not  write  on  fences,  buildings,  posts,  or  sidewalks. 

I  will  keep  my  front  and  back  yards  free  from  waste 
paper,  weeds,  and  all  rubbish. 

I  will  help  to  keep  all  garbage  at  my  house  covered  up. 

I  will  make  every  day  a  Clean-Up  Day  at  my  home. 

I  will  help  to  make  my  school  the  prettiest  in  the  city. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Tell  how  some  diseases  can  be  prevented.    Which  is  better,  to  pre- 
vent or  to  cure  disease? 

2.  Appoint  a  member  of  your  class  to  write  to  your  state  health  depart- 
ment for  a  pamphlet  on  pure  drinking  water  for  schools  and  homes. 

3.  Get  your  class  to  make  a  survey  of  the  school  premises  in  order  to 
learn  in  what  respects  health  conditions  might  be  improved. 

4.  Explain  how  parks  and  playgrounds  promote  health. 

5.  Answer  these  questions: 

What  diseases  does  your  board  of  health  quarantine? 
What  disposition  is  made  of  sewage  in  your  community? 
How  is  garbage  disposed  of? 

What  is  being  done  about  the  water  supply?    The  milk  supply? 
What  officer  in  your  community  is  responsible  for  health? 
Why  are  city  dump  piles  a  menace  to  health? 
What  is  the  bubonic  plague  and  how  is  it  spread? 
What  is  the  hookworm  disease  and  how  is  it  spread? 
Which  of  the  following  water  supplies  is  most  dangerous:   a  well; 
a  spring;  a  stream?    Why? 

6.  Organize  a  campaign  against  mosquitoes,  flies,  and  other  pests. 
(See  page  304  for  suggestions.) 

7.  Organize  a  neighborhood  "clean-up"  campaign.    Consult  your  local 
or  state  board  of  health  for  plans  and  methods. 


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CHAPTER  XVII 

SAVERS  AND  WASTERS 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  how  others  have  succeeded  by 
thrift;  and  (2)  to  learn  how  to  save  and  to  spend  wisely. 

Meaning  of  Thrift. — Many  of  us  have  an  idea 
that  thrift  simply  means  self-denial — going  without 
the  things  we  want.  This  is  a  mistake.  Thrift  does 
mean  going  without  certain  things.  It  means  going 
without  unnecessary  and  often  not  very  desirable 
things  in  order  to  gain  other  things  more  necessary 
and.highly  to  be  sought.  It  means  giving  up  the  pleasure 
of  the  moment  in  order  to  win  lasting  happiness. 
This  is  the  point  that  should  be  understood,  because 
it  makes  saving  easy — thrift  is  far  more  than  self- 
denial:  it  is  profit,  gain,  prosperity. 

Andrew  Carnegie. — When  Andrew  Carnegie  was 
a  boy  he  was  very  poor.  He  came  of  a  family  of  work- 
ers; his  father  was  a  weaver  of  linen  who  was  ruined 
by  the  introduction  of  machinery  in  linen  making.  So 
Andrew  had  to  go  to  work  at  an  early  age.  While 
he  was  still  a  young  boy,  the  family  moved  from 
Scotland  to  America  and  settled  in  Pittsburgh.  Andrew 
went  to  work  in  a  factory  there  at  a  very  small  wage. 
Leaving  the  factory,  he  rose  to  be  an  operator  in  a 
telegraph  office.  All  the  time  he  was  saving — a  little 
money,  it  is  true,  because  the  family  largely  depended 
on  him,  but  still  a  little.  At  last  the  chance  came 
to  secure  a  good  investment.  The  family  mortgaged 

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its  humble  house  in  order  to  eke  out  Andrew's  savings, 
and  thus  he  was  able  to  make  his  first  investment. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  such  success  as  few  men 
have  ever  gained.  From  a  boy  working  in  a  factory, 
Andrew  Carnegie  rose  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  million- 
aires on  earth.  Thrift  was  the  basis  of  his  success.  It 
was  better  for  him  to  have  denied  himself  the  pleasures 
of  the  moment,  in  order  to  win  immense  wealth  and 
high  position  in  later  life,  than  to  have  spent  his  money 
as  he  made  it  and  so  lose  his  chance  for  the  future. 
That  is  the  essence  of  thrift:  it  is  the  building  of  a 
future.  Almost  all  people  who  are  thrifty  in  youth 
do  well  in  later  life,  because  money,  as  the  saying  is, 
breeds  money.  The  thrifty  boy  or  girl  is  not  only 
making  money  by  his  or  her  own  efforts  but  by  the 
use  of  the  money  saved.  He  or  she  has  two  sources 
of  income — work  and  interest,  which  as  the  payment 
made  for  the  use  of  money.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
thrifty  person  soon  outdistances  the  people  who  have 
to  depend  altogether  on  work. 

Return  on  Money.- — This  return  on  money  is  the 
reason  for  thrift.  All  grown  people,  if  they  are  sensible, 
practice  thrift  to  some  extent,  but  children  frequently 
are  not  expected  to  do  so.  Children  often  spend 
every  cent  given  them  or  that  they  earn  on  candy, 
moving  pictures,  or  in  other  ways  that  bring  in  no 
return.  They  expect  to  save,  but  at  some  time  in  the 
future,  not  realizing  that  thrift  cannot  begin  too  soon, 
that  no  one  is  too  young  to  observe  it.  If  you  regularly 
put  a  little  money  in  a  savings  bank  you  will  be  sur- 
prised to  see  how  much  it  will  amount  to  in  a  few  years. 
Often  one  has  a  chance  to  lend  money  at  six  per  cent 

105 


interest — that  is,  to  receive  a  return  of  six  dollars  for 
the  use  of  a  hundred  dollars  for  a  year.  Sometimes 
one  is  able  to  get  eight  dollars  for  the  use  of  a  hundred 
dollars  for  a  year.  In  an  old  church  a  twenty-dollar 
gold  piece,  which  bore  the  date  1808,  was  recently 
found.  If  that  gold  piece  had  been  loaned  from  1808 
to  1922,  at  six  per  cent  interest,  compounded  semi- 
annually,  it  would  have  increased  to  $16,474.64. 
You  see  from  this  how  money  grows. 

A  Budget. — But  it  is  not  easy  to  save  before  saving 
has  become  a  habit.  The  dimes  and  nickels  get  away 
from  us  without  our  knowing  how  they  go;  the  stores 
are  full  of  things  we  want.  How  then  shall  we  set  about 
saving?  The  best  way  to  save  is  to  begin  by  keeping 
an  expense  account.  Put  down  in  a  little  tablet  every 
cent  you  spend  each  day  for  a  month;  then  look  at 
the  account.  You  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  much 
money  you  spend  on  things  you  do  not  need  and  which 
do  not  give  you  great  satisfaction.  Perhaps  you 
bought  ten  cents'  worth  of  candy  three  times  a  week: 
once  a  week  would  do  as  well..  Perhaps  you  have  been 
to  the  moving  pictures  six  evenings  in  the  month: 
four  would  be  enough.  After  you  have  kept  an  expense 
account  for  some  time,  you  will  begin  to  see  how  you 
might  save  here  and  there  and  yet  have  just  as  much 
pleasure.  Make  what  is  called  a  budget.  Put  down 
your  necessary  expenses  and  then  make  a  certain 
addition  for  pleasure  and  extras.  If  you  keep  to  the 
budget,  you  may  be  sure  you  are  thrifty.  If  you  spend 
much  more  than  it  calls  for,  you  may  know  that  there 
is  a  leak,  that  money  is  going  unnecessarily. 

Need   of  Thrift  Universal. — Everybody   needs   to 

106 


exercise  thrift.  Even  rich  men  will  not  get  along  if 
they  spend  money  recklessly.  If  this  is  true  of  the 
rich,  how  much  more  so  is  it  of  the  poor!  Thrift  indeed 
usually  marks  the  difference  between  the  employee, 
the  man  who  takes  orders,  and  the  employer.  The 
man  who  saves  nothing  is  always  under  some  one 
else,  always  insecure,  always  afraid  that  he  will  lose 
his  place  and  not  be  able  to  get  another.  The  thrifty 
person — the  person  who  has  money  in  bank  or  who 
owns  property — does  not  have  this  worry,  because  he 
knows  that  even  if  he  should  be  out  of  work  for  a  time 
he  will  have  something  to  fall  back  on.  If  he  con- 
tinues to  be  thrifty,  he  will  become  an  employer  of 
others  and  will  give  orders  instead  t)f  receiving  them. 
Needlessness  of  Waste. — The  great  thing  about 
thrift  is  that  after  one  begins  to  be  thrifty,  thrift 
comes  easy.  It  is  largely  a  matter  of  thought.  We 
do  not  wish  to  spend  money  on  unnecessary  things, 
yet  we  often  waste.  We  obtain  pleasure  from  spend- 
ing money  for  amusements,  but  when  we  waste  we  get 
nothing  at  all  in  return.  There  is  no  pleasure  in  waste. 
In  most  families  much  good^  food  is  wasted — food 
which  could  be  served  the  second  day  in  some  appetiz- 
ing form  but  which,  instead,  is  thrown  in  the  garbage 
can.  Clothes  are  often  wasted  in  the  same  way:  why 
should  we  not  wear  old  clothes  at  certain  times  and 
save  our  good  ones?  Frequently  we  throw  away 
shoes  that  would  last  for  months  by  patching.  Furni- 
ture is  sometimes  allowed  to  go  to  pieces  for  lack  of 
a  little  repairing.  Children  often  destroy  school  books 
which  could  be  sold  or  passed  on  to  another  child  in 
the  family.  Likewise,  they  waste  paper  by  writing 

107 


only  on  a  part  of  a  sheet  and  then  throwing  it  away. 
There  are  a  thousand  ways  in  which  we  waste:  nearly 
all  of  us  are  guilty  of  it  in  some  form  and  to  some 
extent.  We  should  fight  against  it:  waste  is  not  only 
wrong;  it  is  stupid.  If  we  come  to  understand  how 
much  saving  means,  we  are  far  less  likely  to  waste. 

When  People  Save. — If  a  farmer  does  not  spend 
all  of  his  earnings  for  clothing,  amusements,  the  doctor 
and  dentist,  and  in  other  ways,  he  has  a  sum  left  over. 
With  this  he  may  buy  a  few  more  acres  of  land.  The 
new  acres  will  mean  that  next  year  he  will  raise  a 
larger  crop  and  get  more  money;  and,  if  he  is  a  very 
thrifty  man,  he  may  go  on  in  this  way  year  after  year 
until  he  turns  a  small  farm  into  a  great  estate.  If  a 
business  man  does  not  spend  all  of  his  earnings  for 
food,  clothing,  doctor's  bills,  and  in  other  ways,  he 
has  a  sum  left  over.  This  will  enable  him  to  buy  more 
goods  next  year,  and  the  larger  stock  of  goods  will 
mean  an  increased  profit.  He  can  do  this  year  after 
year;  his  wealth  will  increase,  and  he  may  eventually 
become  rich,  perhaps  a  millionaire.  The  same  thing, 
in  some  degree,  is  true  of  the  professional  man,  the 
mechanic,  the  factory  worker,  and  nearly  every  body  else. 

How  You  May  Save. — You  have  a  chance  to  earn 
money  by  thrift,  just  as  the  farmer  and  business  man 
and  doctor  have.  You  can  begin  by  putting  a  little 
money  in  a  savings  bank  or  in  Postal  Savings  stamps. 
If  you  put  one  dollar  in  a  savings  bank,  you  will  receive 
three  cents  at  the  end  of  the  year  for  the  use  of  your 
money.  This  may  seem  a  small  amount,  but  if  you 
put  ten  dollars  in  the  savings  bank  you  will  get  thirty 
cents  in  interest,  and  one  hundred  dollars  will  bring 

108 


you  in  a  return  of  three  dollars.  There  are  other  ways 
of  investment.  Nobody  need  be  without  means  of 
gaining  interest  on  money. 

The  Way  to  Wealth.— Thrift  is  the  way  to  wealth. 
There  is  really  no  other  way.  Nearly  everyone  who 
has  made  a  success  of  life  has  done  so  by  thrift.  The 
man  who  spends  all  he  makes  and  never  saves  any- 
thing is  at  the  mercy  of  every  misfortune.  He  must 
borrow  money  when  he  is  sick  or  in  trouble,  and  he 
has  no  means  to  invest  when  opportunities  come. 
Such  men  almost  never  become  rich.  The  place  to 
be  is  in  the  ranks  of  the  thrifty,  the  savers,  and  not 
in  the  ranks  of  the  unthrifty,  the  wasters.  Those  who 
take  this  stand  and  stick  to  it  will  be  practically 
certain  to  meet  with  some  measure  of  success  at  least. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  different  ways  in  which  people  waste  time;   money 
material. 

2.  Write  a  short  composition  on  "  Why  I  Should  Have  a  Bank  Account." 

3.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  manner  in  which  the  banks  in  your 
community  are  conducted. 

4.  Let  the  club  originate  and  give  a  "Thrift"  play.    The  proceeds  may 
be  used  to  add  books  to  the  library. 


109 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

BEAUTY 

Problems :  (1)  To  learn  the  importance  of  beauty  in  one's 
surroundings;  and  (2)  to  take  steps  to  beautify  your  own 
community. 

Beauty  of  Washington. — If  you  go  to  Washington, 
you  will  find  a  city  different  from  any  you  have  seen 
before.  You  will  see  wide,  asphalt-paved  streets, 
bordered  by  beautiful  trees;  parks,  whose  refreshing 
loveliness  will  tempt  you  to  linger  in  them;  public 
buildings,  massive  and  yet  graceful  and  pleasing. 
Nowhere  will  you  see  smoke  and  dirt  and  confusion. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  Washington  is  a  city  where 
beauty  has  been  greatly  considered  and  where  efforts 
for  improvement  have  been  put  forth  for  many  years. 
There  is  probably  no  more  beautiful  city  in  the  whole 
world  than  the  capital  of  our  country. 

Beauty  in  Other  Cities. — What  has  been  done  so 
well  in  Washington  is  being  done  to  some  extent  in  all 
the  cities  of  the  country.  For  many  years  Americans 
were  too  intent  on  growth  to  care  much  for  appearances. 
The  fine  old  houses  that  had  been  built  in  the  early 
period  of  our  history  were  neglected;  buildings  were 
put  up  for  purposes  of  usefulness  alone  and  with  no 
regard  to  grace  and  beauty;  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
trolley  poles  raised  their  unsightly  heads  everywhere; 
front  yards  were  neglected;  hideous  advertisements 
were  scattered  through  the  streets,  even  the  best 

111 


residential  streets;  there  were  few  parks;  there  were 
few  streets  with  trees.  But  a  number  of  years  ago 
some  of  the  public-spirited  people  of  the  country  began 
a  movement  to  improve  the  appearance  of  our  cities, 
and  this  has  been  under  way  ever  since.  Much  has 
been  accomplished.  In  many  large  cities  telegraph 
and  telephone  poles  have,  been  taken  down;  streets 
are  properly  paved;  trees  are  planted  throughout 
residential  sections;  frequently  ugly  houses  have  been 
replaced  by  pleasing  ones.  Everywhere  our  cities  have 
been  cleaned  up;  the  streets  are  no  longer  left  littered 
with  paper  and  rubbish:  window  boxes  bloom  in 
houses.  The  former  hardness  and  bareness  of  our 
cities  is  fast  being  replaced  by  soft  beauty — by  grass 
and  trees  and  flowers. 

Beautifying  the  Yard. — In  no  respect  has  the  move- 
ment for  beauty  accomplished  more  than  in  the  beauti- 
fying of  yards.  The  time  was  when  we  paid  little  atten- 
tion to  front  yards,  especially  in  the  smaller  cities. 
Now  nearly  everybody  who  has  a  front  yard  has  a 
lawn.  In  many  places  the  competition  between  house 
owners  in  the  matter  of  fine  lawns  is  keen.  When  men 
come  home  from  work  they  like  to  trim  the  grass  with 
the  lawn  mower,  and  each  season  they  make  efforts 
to  have  better  grass.  Often  flowers  add  a  dash  of 
color  to  the  cool  and  grateful  green  of  the  grass.  Not 
so  much  has  been  done  in  the  case  of  the  back  yard. 
Sometimes  fine  houses  with  well-kept  lawns  have 
unsightly  back  yards:  cans,  waste  paper,  and  rubbish 
still  litter  back  yards,  even  in  good  streets.  This 
should  not  be  the  case.  We  should  have  clean  yards. 
But  we  may  have  back  yards  sufficiently  clean  for 


purposes  of  health  and  yet  bare  and  dreary.  A  little 
patch  of  grass,  a  border  of  flowers,  a  row  of  trees,  or  a 
creeping  vine  will  add  immensely  to  the  attractiveness 
of  the  surroundings.  People  are  insensibly  affected  by 
their  surroundings;  a  man  with  a  beautiful  back  yard 
will  be  happier  than  one  who  looks  out  on  dismal 
bricks  and  mortar  unrelieved  by  vegetation. 

Trees. — Perhaps  the  most  important  factors  in 
community  beauty  are  trees.  Nowadays  we  are  so 
alive  to  the  value  of  trees  that  we  not  only  plant  large 
numbers  of  young  ones,  but  we  pay  much  attention 
to  old  ones.  There  are  "tree  doctors"  whose  work 
is  to  save  trees  beginning  to  decay.  An  old  tree  is 
treated  by  surgery  and  medicine,  somewhat  as  a  sick 
man  is.  In  some  cities  people  are  fined  for  cutting 
down  trees,  even  on  their  own  places,  unless  the  trees 
are  replaced  by  others.  In  nearly  all  the  cities  of  the 
country  there  are  long  tree-lined  streets  which  are  the 
pride  of  the  community.  Trees  are  not  only  beautiful; 
they  are  an  advantage  in  many  ways.  They  screen 
houses  from  the  glare  of  the  summer  sun,  and  they 
protect  passers-by  from  the  heat.  They  soothe  the 
eyes  and  help  tired  nerves.  They  benefit  body  and 
mind. 

Better  Housing. — Another  movement  which  con- 
cerns both  health  and  beauty  is  that  of  affording  better 
houses  for  working  people.  Formerly,  in  many  cities, 
working  people  lived  in  tenements — large,  bare,  bar- 
racklike  places  without  grace  or  ornament — or  in 
little  tumble-down  houses  on  the  outskirts.  These 
brought  a  low  rent  and  the  owners  spent  little  or 
nothing  in  repairs.  Fortunately  this  condition  of 

113 


affairs  is  passing  away.  Only  houses  of  decent  appear- 
ance may  now  be  built  in  most  cities,  and  owners  are 
required  to  clean  up  and  keep  buildings  in  repair. 
We  demand  good  living  conditions  for  citizens. 

Advertisements. — Twenty  years  ago  visitors  from 
foreign  countries  spoke  most  unfavorably  of  the  adver- 
tisements which  then  flooded  every  city.  No  section 
of  an  American  city  was  free  from  enormous  signs 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS,  CHESTER  (\TA.)  HIGH  SCHOOL 

advertising  every  commodity  under  the  sun  in  a  glar- 
ing manner.  Billboards  stood  on  nearly  every  vacant 
lot,  even  on  the  finest  streets.  Roads  and  railroads 
were  lined  with  advertisements  of  every  sort.  Turn 
where  one  would,  there  was  no  escaping  signs.  Within 
the  last  few  years  this  condition  has  been  improved. 
In  some  cities  large  signs  can  be  put  up  only  in  certain 
sections;  in  other  sections  advertisements  are  restricted. 
Besides,  the  advertisements  themselves  have  changed. 

114 


They  have  become  much  more  artistic  and  pleasing, 
and  the  traveler's  sense  of  beauty  is  no  longer  offended 
on  every  side  as  formerly. 

What  You  Can  Do. — All  of  us  can  help  to  create 
civic  beauty.  You  have  an  opportunity  to  do  much 
yourself.  In  the  first  place,  you  can  help  to  make 
your  own  home  beautiful.  You  can  see  that  the  lawn 
is  cut  and  the  back  yard  free  of  cans  and  rubbish. 
You  can  plant  trees  and  paint  the  fences  and  gates 
around  your  home.  More  than  this,  you  can  aid  in 
making  your  school  beautiful.  Most  school  buildings 
are  built  for  beauty  as  well  as  use:  in  every  city  there 
are  handsome  and  graceful  schools.  But  sometimes 
the  surroundings  of  these  schools  are  not  what  they 
should  be.  It  is  there  that  you  can  help.  You  can  take 
part  in  the  movement  for  making  the  outside  of  the 
school  beautiful  and  for  keeping  the  inside  clean  and 
attractive.  This  is  an  important  matter. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Find  out  what  town  or  city  ordinances  aid  in  beautifying  your  com- 
munity.   Name  others  which  might  be  made. 

2.  Keep   a   class   record   of   various   efforts   made    to   beautify   your 
community. 

3.  See  what  your  club  can  do  to  prevent  needless  destruction  of  trees 
or  other  natural  beauty  in  your  locality.' 

4.  Appoint  committees  to  take  steps  to  beautify  your  schoolroom  and 
school  yard. 


115 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SAFETY 

Problems:  (1)  To  make  a  study  of  "  safety  -first "  regu- 
lations; and  (2)  to  suggest  means  of  carrying  them  out. 

Drive  to  the  Right.— Certain  things  are  agreed  on 
for  the  good  of  all.  Suppose  there  were  no  road  laws 
and  no  traffic  regulations  for  the  streets:  everyone 
who  rode  in  an  automobile  or  crossed  a  street  on 
foot  would  be  in  imminent  danger  of  death,  for  one 
could  never  tell  in  which  direction  cars  would  be  com- 
ing. Collisions  would  be  endless.  Every  curve  in 
every  road  .would  have  its  accident,  because  auto- 
mobiles going  in  opposite  directions  and  traveling  on 
the  same  side  of  the  road  would  crash  into  each  other. 
As  it  is,  the  road  law  is  to  keep  to  the  right,  and  this 
simple  regulation  makes  travel  possible.  Drivers  know 
just  what  to  do.  In  cities  regulations  are  much  more 
elaborate:  automobiles  must  go  at  a  certain  speed; 
those  going  in  certain  directions  have  the  right  of  way 
and  certain  streets  are  used  for  one-way  traffic.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  regulations  are  sometimes  broken, 
and  the  breaking  of  them  leads  to  the  death  and  maim- 
ing of  many  persons.  If  everybody  carefully  observed 
traffic  regulations,  there  would  be  few  mishaps.  Care- 
lessness is  the  cause  of  most  accidents. 

Fourth  of  July  Celebrations. — We  all  like  to  cele- 
brate the  Fourth  of  July,  the  birthday  of  the  nation. 
We  have  found  that  the  "sane  Fourth"  is  the  best 

116 


kind  of  celebration.  Formerly  the  Fourth  of  July  was 
observed  by  shooting  off  firecrackers  and  pistols.  Some 
of  these  firecrackers  were  of  immense  size  and  pro- 
duced almost  as  loud  a  report  as  a  cannon.  Every 
Fourth  of  July  a  large  number  of  persons,  mostly  boys, 
were  injured  or  killed  by  explosives  and  many  houses 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  The  newspapers  contained 
long  lists  of  terrible  accidents.  In  recent  years  the 
shooting  of  pistols  and  firecrackers  has  been  forbidden 
in  large  cities.  The  result  has  been  that  the  Fourth 
of  July  accidents  have  nearly  ceased  while  everybody 
enjoys  Independence  Day  as  much  as  ever. 

Fire  Drills. — Fire  drills  are  a  great  protection  to 
schools,  as  they  enable  children  to  leave  the  building 
rapidly.  When  a  fire  breaks  out  in  a  school  where  the 
rule  for  going  out  quickly  has  been  practiced,  the  chil- 
dren almost  always  leave  in  safety. 

Firemen's  Methods. — All  city  fire  departments 
have  a  thorough  organization  for  handling  fires.  Usu- 
ally a  space  for  some  distance  about  the  burning  area 
is  roped  off  and  none  but  firemen  are  permitted  to 
come  within  the  ropes.  This  is  done  for  two  reasons: 
citizens,  if  allowed  to  come  near  the  burning  buildings, 
would  get  in  the  firemen's  way;  and  they  would  also 
be  in  great  danger  of  being  killed  by  falling  walls.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  do  their  work  properly  and  protect 
the  public,  firemen  have  strict  regulations.  Each  fire- 
man knows  just  what  is  expected  of  him  and  when  the 
time  comes  he  is  able  to  do  his  work  quickly  and 
effectively. 

Police  Regulations. — The  police  enforce  many  regu- 
lations for  the  safety  of  citizens.  In  some  cities  people 

117 


are  not  permitted  to  cross  the  streets  except  at  corners, 
in  order  to  lessen  the  danger  of  accidents  from%auto- 
mobiles  and  street  cars.  Another  law  is  that  fire 
escapes  must  not  be  clogged  up.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  they  may  be  needed  at  any  moment,  and  persons 
have  lost  their  lives  on  account  of  the  blocking  of 


AFTER  THE  ACCIDENT 

fire  escapes  with  luggage.  People  are  forbidden  to 
spit  on  the  sidewalk,  since  in  this  way  disease  germs  are 
spread,  bringing  suffering  and  death  to  many. 

Railroad  Safety. — The  regulations  on  railroads  are 
very  strict,  because  the  lives  of  people  depend  on  regu- 
larity. Why  do  you  suppose  that  trains  leave  at  cer- 
tain hours?  Partly  that  people  may  know  when  to 

118 


go  to  the  station,  and  partly  because  a  regular  schedule 
has  much  to  do  with  insuring  the  safety  of  trains.  The 
railroad  officials  and  workmen  know  when  each  train 
is  expected  at  each  station,  and  this  means  that  other 
trains  are  not  likely  to  be  in  the  way.  Train  workmen 
are  not  allowed  to  drink  alcohol.  This  regulation  was 
adopted  by  the  railroads  years  ago,  because  it  was 
found  that  drunken  engineers  were  sometimes  the  cause 
of  terrible  accidents.  Pedestrians  are  warned  not  to 
walk  on  railroad  tracks  and  cross  railroad  bridges; 
many  persons  have  been  killed  by  getting  on  the  tracks. 
Likewise,  passengers  are  warned  by  notices  in  coaches 
not  to  stand  on  the  platform  while  the  train  is  in  motion, 
as  fatal  accidents  have  occurred  in  this  way.  Railroad 
regulations  forbid  a  train  to  enter  a  "block,"  or  a  cer- 
tain small  section  of  a  road,  where  a  train  is  standing, 
until  the  train  already  in  the  block  has  gone  on. 
This  is  done  to  prevent  collisions. 

Health  Laws. — No  person  is  allowed  to  land  from  a 
ship  coming  into  a  port  of  the  United  States  until  the 
passengers  have  been  examined  and  the  health  officials, 
are  satisfied  that  no  cases  of  dangerous  epidemic  dis- 
eases are  on  board.  Sometimes  a  ship  is  kept  in  quar- 
antine for  ten  days  before  the  officials  are  certain  that 
there  is  no  peril.  When  smallpox,  diphtheria,  scarlet 
fever,  and  some  other  diseases  break  out  in  a  house, 
the  occupants  of  that  house  are  kept  quarantined  until 
the  health  authorities  are  satisfied  that  the  danger  of 
the  spread  of  the  disease  is  past.  In  every  city  there 
are  authorities  engaged  in  enforcing  laws  to  protect  the 
health  and  lives  of  citizens. 

Theater  Regulations. — In  all  cities  there  are  laws 

119 


for  the  protection  of  people  who  visit  theaters  and 
moving  pictures.  Theaters  are  required  to  have  asbes- 
tos curtains,  so  that  in  case  a  fire  breaks  out  on  the 
stage  it  can  be  shut  off  at  once  from  the  audience  by 
the  lowering  of  the  curtain.  People  are  not  allowed  to 
stand  in  the  aisles  of  theaters;  in  many  theaters  they 
are  not  allowed  to  stand  at  all.  This  rule  was  estab- 
lished to  prevent  jams  in  case  of  panics  caused  by  fires 
or  other  accidents.  In  some  states  the  law  requires 
moving-picture  operators  to  be  licensed,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  occurrence  of  fires  from  ignorance  and 
inexperience. 

Handling  of  Crowds. — At  parades  and  on  all  occa- 
sions where  great  crowds  gather  policemen  are  at  hand 
to  protect  the  public.  Mounted  policemen  usually  ride 
in  front  of  parades  to  see  that  no  persons  are  in  the  way. 
People  attempting  to  cross  a  street  while  a  parade  is 
passing  are  kept  back  by  the  police.  This  is  done  to 
prevent  accidents.  If  spectators  were  allowed  to  get  in 
the  way,  especially  in  circus  and  automobile  parades, 
they  would  be  in  great  danger  of  being  killed.  Like- 
wise, at  open-air  political  gatherings  policemen  are 
stationed  to  preserve  order  and  prevent  overcrowding. 
At  ball  parks,  policemen  see  that  the  people  do  not 
press  into  the  entrances  too  rapidly.  A  dense  crowd  is 
a  dangerous  place  in  which  to  be,  and  people  have  been 
frequently  killed  or  injured  by  being  caught  in  jams. 

Safety  on  Street  Cars. — In  many  cities  the  street 
cars  bear  notices  warning  persons  not  to  get  off  cars 
backward  and  not  to  step  away  from  cars  without 
watching  for  oncoming  automobiles.  These  notices  also 
urge  passengers  not  to  get  on  and  off  cars  while  in  mo- 

120 


i 


Photograph  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 

(121)  A  CIRCUS  PARADE 


tion  and  not  to  step  across  another  track  on  alighting 
from  a  car.  Many  accidents  have  been  caused  by  dis- 
regarding these  precautions. 

Protection  of  Employees. — In  factories  and  mills 
great  pains  are  taken  to  protect  employees.  In  most 
factories  there  are  notices  warning  employees  to  observe 
measures  for  their  protection.  In  factories  where  flying 
particles  cause  injury  to  the  eyes  or  lungs,  employees 
are  urged  to  wear  glasses  and,  in  some  cases,  gas 
masks,  in  order  to  protect  themselves.  In  nearly  all 
manufacturing  plants  where  dangerous  work  is  done  the 
regulations  are  very  strict.  Observance  of  them  usually 
insures  the  safety  of  workmen,  and  violations  are  fre- 
quently followed  by  disaster. 

Safety-First  Movement. — The  whole  country  has 
awakened  recently  to  the  importance  of  the  "safety- 
first"  movement.  This  movement  was  begun  some 
years  ago  by  a  group  of  public-minded  citizens  who 
were  saddened  by  the  great  number  of  avoidable  acci- 
dents that  occur  in  the  United  States  every  year.  By 
posting  warnings  in  dangerous  places  and  by  other 
means  they  have  aroused  the  people  to  make  efforts 
to  reduce  the  perils  of  our  daily  life.  It  is  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  People  in  civilized  countries  should 
not  constantly  go  about  in  danger  of  their  lives. 

TEN  SAFETY-FIRST  RULES 

1.  Never  cross  a  street  or  railroad  track  without  being 
sure  the  way  is  clear.    Observe  the  rules  of  the  traffic  depart- 
ment when  crossing  streets. 

2.  Be  careful  while  working  with  tools  and  machines. 

3.  Do  not  play  with  automobiles.    Do  not  play  in  the 
streets. 

122 


4.  Do  not  play  with  firearms  or  hold  in  the  hand  lighted 
firecrackers. 

5.  Keep  away  from  open  fireplaces. 

6.  Do  not  play  dangerous  games,  such  as  "rock  bat- 
tling."    Do  not  dare  others  to  skate  on  thin  ice,  to  climb 
high  walls,  or  to  jump  from  low  buildings. 

7.  Do  not  venture  into  deep  water  either  in  swimming 
or  boating  unless  you  are  a  good  swimmer. 

8.  Do  not  build  fires  with  kerosene. 

9.  Avoid  all  broken  wires  that  may  be  charged  with 
electricity. 

10.  Do    not   handle   gasoline,    dynamite,    or   other   ex- 
plosives. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Secure  for  the  bulletin  board  newspaper  clippings  describing  accidents 
to  children  and  adults. 

2.  Mention  some  state  laws  that  help  to  prevent  accidents  on  the 
public  highways  and  on  railroad  tracks. 

3.  Appoint  a  committee  to  secure  a  copy  of  the  traffic  laws  of  your  city. 
Read  and  discuss  the  most  important  of  these  rules. 

4.  Describe  in  an  oral  composition  how  you  met  with  an  accident 
through  carelessness. 

5.  Find  out  what  protection  against  fire  your  community  provides. 

6.  Discuss  and  adopt  a  set  of  safety-first  rules  which  will  prevent 
accidents  at  school  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  school. 

7.  Appoint  a  committee  to   make  a  poster  containing  these  rules  for 
display  in  your  room  or  in  the  school  corridor. 


123 


CHAPTER  XX 
FIRE   PREVENTION 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  fire  prevention;  and  (2)  to 
learn  how  you  may  help  in  this  work. 

The  Cost  of  Fires. — Sometimes  as  you  drive  along 
a  country  highway  you  see  standing  in  a  deserted  field 
or  grove  a  lone  chimney.  Around  it  is  piled  rubbish 
fringed  with  rank  weeds  and  shrubs.  This  dreary  spot 
marks  the  place  where  there  was  once  a  happy  home; 
but  some  one  grew  careless,  the  house  caught  on  fire, 
and  in  a  few  hours  nothing  but  a  naked  chimney  and 
blackened  ruins  remained.  There  are  thousands  of 
such  chimneys  in  America,  for  we  have  not  yet  learned 
the  important  lesson  of  fire  prevention. 

A  Fire  a  Minute. — Fifteen  thousand  lives  are  lost 
each  year  in  the  United  States  by  fire,  while  the  prop- 
erty destruction  reaches  the  enormous  sum  of  $400, 
000,000.  You  can  get  an  idea  of  what  this  means  by 
the  following  illustration:  there  are  1440  minutes  in  a 
day,  and  there  are  about  1500  fires  every  day  in  the 
United  States.  Watch  a  clock  for  a  few  minutes. 
Every  time  the  long  hand  passes  a  minute  mark  say  to 
yourself,  "Another  fire  has  broken  out."  Besides  fac- 
tories and  hotels,  eight  hundred  dwelling  houses  are 
destroyed  by  fire  in  our  country  each  day  of  the  year. 
The  saddest  fact  about  these  fires  is  that  so  many  of 
them  are  due  to  carelessness. 

Forest  Fires. — Some  of  the  most  disastrous  fires  that 

124 


occur  are  forest  fires.  If  you  live  in  a  wooded  section, 
you  must  have  seen  the  sky  lit  up  for  miles  by  acres  of 
blazing  woods.  The  great  trees  were  decades,  perhaps 
centuries,  in  growing,  but  one  careless  act,  such  as  a 
camp  fire  left  burning,  laid  waste  in  a  few  hours  what 
nature  was  long,  long  years  in  perfecting.  It  is  esti- 


A  FOREST  FIRE 

mated  that  one  third  of  all  the  timber  in  our  country 
is  destroyed  by  forest  fires.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment has  established  a  number  of  forest  preserves 
throughout  the  country  and  maintains  in  each  area  a 
fire  patrol  to  put  out  fires. 

Fire  Fighters  and  Insurance. — Loss  of  life  and  de- 

125 


struction  of  property  are  not  all  that  is  to  be  charged 
against  fires;  the  people  of  America  spend  millions  of 
dollars  annually  in  maintaining  fire  departments  and 
in  paying  fire  insurance.  Fire  departments  are  a  great 
comfort;  we  feel  safer  when  we  lie  down  to  sleep,  know- 
ing that  brave  firemen  will  come  to  our  help  in  case  of 
fire.  Still,  if  people  were  more  careful  and  there  were 
fewer  fires,  your  city  would  not  have  to  purchase  so 
many  engines  or  employ  such  a  large  number  of  fire 
fighters.  Besides,  many  millions  of  dollars  paid  each 
year  to  fire  insurance  companies  would  be  saved.  Few 
men  fail  to  insure  their  property  against  loss  by  fire, 
but  if  fires  were  infrequent  occurrences  insurance  would 
cost  much  less. 

Carelessness. — A  fire  insurance  paper  gives  the  fol- 
lowing incidents  to  show  that  carelessness  is  at  the 
bottom  of  some  of  the  greatest  fires.  A  woman  in 
Augusta,  Georgia,  who  was  using  an  electric  iron,  forgot 
to  turn  off  the  current  when  she  went  to  luncheon. 
The  result  of  this  little  piece  of  carelessness  was  the 
burning  of  a  large  part  of  Augusta.  Property  to  the 
value  of  $5,000,000  was  destroyed,  and  hundreds  of 
people  had  to  live  in  tents  until  their  homes  were  re- 
built. In  Chelsea,  Texas,  the  people  thought  a  "  dump  " 
was  a  good  thing  until  it  caught  fire  and  burned  them 
out  of  their  homes.  In  an  Ohio  school  a  stovepipe  was 
too  near  the  ceiling,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
three  children  and  three  teachers  paid  the  penalty  with 
their  lives.  A  man  threw  a  lighted  cigarette  into  some 
trash  in  a  shirtwaist  factory,  and  one  hundred  and  forty 
girls  died.  A  hundred  other  examples  might  be  given. 

Causes  of  Fire. — If  you  wish  to  prevent  fires  you 

126 


must  watch  the  things  listed  below.  With  some  excep- 
tions, they  are  among  the  most  useful  things  in  the 
world,  but,  handled  carelessly,  they  cause  enormous 
destruction.  Take  up  each  one  of  these  articles  sepa- 


Photograph  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 

DANGER — CLEANING  WITH  GASOLINE 

rately  and  tell  how  it  should  be  handled  so  as  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  fires: 

Matches.  Gasoline. 

Bonfires.  Electricity. 

Lamps.  Waste  paper  and  rags. 

Stoves.  Lighted  cigarettes  and  cigars. 

How  the  Community  Works  to  Prevent  Fires. — We 
have  many  laws  to  prevent  fires.    It  is  against  the  law, 

127 


for  instance,  to  sell  kerosene  after  dark.  Nearly  every 
state  has  laws  stating  in  what  way  gasoline,  gunpowder, 
and  t)ther  explosives  and  inflammable  material  shall  be 
stored.  Cities  have  codes  requiring  that  buildings  of  a 
certain  height  shall  be  fireproof;  that  in  certain  sections 
all  buildings  must  be  of  brick  or  stone;  that  buildings  of  a 
certain  height  must  be  equipped  with  fire  escapes;  and 
that  all  electric  wiring  must  be  done  in  a  thorough  man- 
ner. A  person  who  seeks  to  erect  a  building  of  any  kind 
'must  go  to  the  building -inspector's  office,  file  plans,  and 
secure  a  permit.  The  law  requires  that  theaters,  hotels, 
and  other  public  buildings  shall  have  a  sufficient  number 
of  exits,  clearly  marked  with  red  lights.  The  law  also 
demands  that  the  doors  of  public  buildings,  including 
schoolhouses,  shall  open  outward.  There  are  other  regu- 
lations of  a  similar  sort. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Inspect  carefully  your  home  from  cellar  to  garret,  including  the 
back  yard,  and  make  a  list  of  the  things  that  might  cause  a  fire.    Pay  special 
attention  to  stovepipes,  waste  paper,  kerosene,  matches,    and  oiled  rags. 
Give  this  list  to  your  parents  and  do  what  you  can  to  remove  the  dangers. 

2.  Appoint  a  committee  of  your  club  to  inspect  the  school  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  similar  list. 

3.  Invite  a  fireman  to  visit  your  school  and  talk  to  you  about  fire  pre- 
vention.   Have  him  explain  to  you  how  to  turn  in  a  fire  alarm. 

4.  Invite  some  pupil  to  bring  a  fire  extinguisher  to  school  and  demon- 
strate how  it  puts  out  a  fire. 

5.  Get  the  entire  school  to  observe  a  fire  prevention  week  during  whidt 
cellars,  garrets,  and  back  yards  are  to  be  cleaned  up  with  the  view  of  lesser- 
ing  fire  hazards. 


128 


CHAPTER  XXI 

EDUCATION 

Problem:  (1)  To  study  the  growth  of  schools;  and  (2), 
to  find  out  all  you  can  about  the  schools  of  your  community 
and  your  state. 

Early  Schools. — Once  upon  a  time  there  were  few 
schools;  the  majority  of  people  did  not  go  to  school  at 
all.  Taxes  were  not  paid,  as  they  are  now,  in  order  to 
provide  education  for  all  the  children  of  a  neighbor- 
hood. Men  of  means  would  hire  a  teacher  to  instruct 
their  children  or  a  teacher  would  come  into  a  neigh- . 
borhood  and  open  a  school  as  a  business,  charging 
children  a  certain  fee  for  attending  it.  Thus  education 
was  the  property  of  a  few,  not  the  free  possession  of 
all.  There  was  a  vast  difference  in  every  neighborhood 
between  the  men  of  learning  and  the  poor  people  who 
could  not  read  or  write  and  who  had  to  make  their 
mark  when  they  signed  a  legal  document. 

Public  Schools. — In  the  United  States,  however, 
there  early  arose  a  feeling  that  everybody  should  have 
some  education.  It  was  felt  that  it  was  a  good  invest- 
ment to  found  schools  which  all  children  might  attend 
free  of  charge.  Property  owners  in  some  places  were 
persuaded  that  it  would  be  to  their  benefit,  as  well  as 
to  the  benefit  of  others,  to  pay  taxes  for  free  schools. 
They  came  to  see  that  the  greater  intelligence  of  the 
people  resulting  from  education  increased  the  wealth 
of  a  locality.  There  was  another  reason  why  free 

129 


schools  were  needed.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century 
many  of  the  states  of  the  United  States  conferred  on 
all  male  citizens  the  right  to  vote;  before  this  time 
only  property  owners  voted.  It  would  not  do  to  have 
voters  who  could  not  read,  for  such  men  would  not  vote 
intelligently.  Consequently  some  of  the  states  estab- 
lished public  schools,  and  gradually  the  system  spread 
throughout  the  country.  At  present  every  state  in  the 
Union  has  good  public  schools  employing  large  numbers 
of  teachers  and  spending  millions  of  dollars.  No 
investment  ever  brought  so  rich  a  return  as  public 
schools  have  tcrthe  United  States.  Partly  because  of 
them  America  is  the  foremost  country  on  earth. 

Democracy  and  Schools. — The  public  schools  have 
had  much  to  do  with  the  growth  of  democracy  in  the 
United  States.  There  is  no  longer  the  old  division 
between  the  educated  and  the  illiterate.  In  modern 
communities,  all  the  people  have  some  education. 
Men  who  work  in  manual  trades  are  well  informed 
instead  of  being  ignorant  and  helpless,  as  they  once 
were.  Indeed,  there  is  no  great  difference  between  the 
workmen  of  today,  intelligent,  well  paid,  and  well 
dressed,  and  business  and  professional  men.  The 
public  schools,  then,  have  done  much  to  overthrow 
the  old  differences  between  persons  based  on  difference 
in  knowledge,  and  to  put  people  who  were  once  poor  and 
ignorant  on  a  level  with  the  educated.  This  is  true 
democracy. 

Place  of  the  School. — The  place  of  the  school  in  the 
life  of  the  community  is  constantly  widening  in  scope. 
Fine  buildings  replace  the  cabins  that  were  once 
schoolhouses.  Once  the  "three  R's,"  reading,  writing, 

131 


and  arithmetic,  were  all  that  was  taught.  Today 
schools  not  only  give  literary  instruction,  but  train 
boys  and  girls  in  ways  of  making  a  living.  They  also 
serve  as  community  centers,  for  adults  as  well  as  for 
children.  School  buildings  are  used  for  lectures, 
amusements,  and  public  meetings.  Teachers  take  an 
equal  part  in  community  affairs  with  lawyers  and 
preachers.  Their  knowledge  makes  them  valuable, 
and  they  more  and  more  tend  to  become  leaders  in 
local  and  national  affairs.  They  hold  important  offices 
in  every  city  and  state,  and  not  many  years  ago  a 
teacher  was  President  of  the  United  States.  In  every 
way  the  influence  of  schools  is  growing,  broadening  the 
country  and  bringing  it  countless  benefits. 

Elementary  Education. — Elementary  education  is 
that  period  of  schooling  that  extends  from  the  age  of 
six  to  about  fourteen  or  fifteen.  In  many  states  ele- 
mentary education  is  enforced  by  law,  and  the  parents 
who  do  not  send  their  children  to  school  are  liable  to 
punishment.  In  this  way  the  government  protects 
children  against  the  possible  carelessness  of  parents. 
In  the  elementary  schools  children  learn  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  grammar  and  composition,  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  other  branches.  They  also  often 
take  up  domestic  science  and  manual  training.  The 
result  of  this  system  is  that  boys  and  girls  who  have  to 
leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  elementary  period  are 
not  unprepared  for  the  duties  of  life.  Yet  the  benefits 
of  high  school  are  great.  Boys  and  girls  who  attend 
high  school  put  a  finish  on  elementary  education  that  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  afterward.  It  marks  the 
difference  between  knowing  things  a  little  and  knowing 

132 


them  well.  High  school  graduates  are  able  to  use 
English  to  better  advantage  than  people  who  have 
had  only  elementary  education.  Their  knowledge  o'f 
mathematics  is  much  greater.  A  further  study  of 
history  and  government  broadens  their  vision  and 
increases  their  knowledge  of  geography,  while  science 
prepares  them  to  live  and  work  in  the  modern  world. 


A  CLASS  IN  COOKING 

They  are  ready  for  the  battle  of  life  and  therefore  their 
chances  of  success  are  good. 

Vocational  Education. — One  of  the  most  important 
aims  of  education  is  to  prepare  boys  and  girls  for 
occupations.  Many  states  now  provide  vocational 
schools  where  skilled  trades  and  other  callings  are 
taught.  Trades,  agriculture,  business,  domestic  occu- 
pations may  all  be  learned  in  these  schools,  and  in  most 
states  colleges  for  teaching  law,  educational  work, 

133 


medicine,  dentistry,  pharmacy,  and  the  various  branches 
of  engineering  are  supported  by  the  government.  The 
opportunities  for  obtaining  education  of  any  sort  are 
now  so  great  that  few  boys  or  girls  remain  ignorant 
and  inefficient  except  by  choice. 

Special  Schools. — Many  boys  and  girls  wish  to 
learn  an  occupation  without  being  able  to  give  their 
whole  time  to  the  training.  Some  are  obliged  to  go  to 
work  to  support  themselves  on  leaving  the  elementary 
school  or  high  school.  Modern  schools  provide  for  the 
needs  of  these  ambitious  workers.  Part-time  schools 
give  students  the  opportunity  to  make  a  living  at  their 
trades  while  learning;  they  go  to  school  for  a  time  and 
also  work  at  their  occupations,  and  continue  this  until 
they  have  mastered  their  callings.  Night  schools  provide 
instruction  for  those  who  have  no  opportunity  to  at- 
tend part-time  schools.  Most  of  the  states  now  support 
extension  work  in  education.  By  this  method  teachers 
from  colleges  go  from  place  to  place  giving  instruction 
in  all  sorts  of  subjects;  information  is  also  sent  out 
from  extension  centers  to  those  who  desire  it.  Further, 
there  are  correspondence  schools  which  conduct  regular 
courses  in  almost  every  branch  of  learning  through  the 
mails,  first  sending  information  and  then  examination 
questions.  There  are  many  other  kinds  of  schools.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  is  the  open-air  school,  which  is 
intended  to  strengthen  the  health  of  delicate  children. 

Control  of  Education. — While  the  United  States 
government  maintains  an  educational  bureau  and 
spends  much  money  in  promoting  public  instruction, 
control  of  education  is  in  the  hands  of  the  states.  In 
fact,  it  is  the  most  important  function  of  the  states. 

134 


In  every  commonwealth  there  is  a  head  of  the  educa- 
tional system,  called  state  superintendent  or  commis- 
sioner of  education.  In  many  states  there  are  boards  of 
education,  which  usually  adopt  the  textbooks  to  be 
used  in  elementary  and  high  schools.  Locally,  schools 
are  controlled  by  city  and  county  boards. 

Payment  for  Education.— Schools  are  largely  sup- 
ported by  local  taxation — usually  a  part  of  the  tax  on 
real  estate  and  other  property  goes  to  them.  The 
state  also  levies  special  taxes  for  education  and  main- 
tains educational  funds:  this  money  is  distributed 
among  the  localities  in  aid  of  the  schools.  In  some 
states,  for  instance,  the  state  government  pays  a  part 
of  the  cost  of  new  school  buildings  while  the  locality 
bears  the  remainder.  In  this  way,  better  school 
buildings  are  constructed  now  than  formerly.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  amount  of  money  spent  on 
public  education  is  constantly  increasing  and  that 
taxation  for  this  purpose  is  borne  by  the  citizens  with- 
out complaint.  The  benefits  of  education  are  so  great 
and  so  obvious  that  few  people  murmur  against  a 
system  which  imposes  a  small  burden  on  everybody  for 
the  good  of  all. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  compulsory  education  laws  and  whether 
your  state  has  any. 

2.  Answer  these  questions: 

What  board  has  charge  of  the  affairs  of  your  school? 

Are  you  going  to  high  school?    To  college?    Why? 

Does  your  state  help  boys  and  girls  to  go  to  college?    Where? 

How? 
What  colleges  and  universities  are  there  in  your  state? 

3.  Discuss  in  class  this  question:  Should  children  be  compelled  to  attend 
school? 

135 


CHAPTER  XXH 

LAWS 

Problems:  To  learn  (1)  something  about  the  laws;  and 
(2)  the  penalties  for  their  violation. 

What  Laws  Are. — Laws  are  regulations  made  by  the 
government  to  protect  life,  property,  health,  dumb 
animals,  business,  institutions,  the  rights  of  people,  and 
other  things.  Many  laws  permit  us  to  act  in  certain 
ways.  Many  other  laws  prohibit  us  from  certain  actions. 
To  violate  laws  which  prohibit  the  doing  of  things  is  to 
make  oneself  liable  to  penalties.  Serious  violation  is 
crime,  and  crime  is  considered  an  offense  against  the 
community  and  is  punished  by  it.  To  act  against  the 
law  in  ways  which  affect  not  the  community  but  only 
private  persons,  especially  the  property  of  persons,  is 
to  make  oneself  liable  to  civil  suits — that  is,  to  lawsuits 
to  gain  compensation  or  damages. 

Cases  in  Court. — Cases  of  petty  violation  of  laws 
and  suits  in  regard  to  small  debts  and  small  amounts  of 
property  are  tried  in  the  lowest  courts,  the  justices' 
courts  in  the  county  and  the  police  courts  in  cities. 
Cases  of  graver  crime  or  those  involving  larger  amounts 
of  property  come  before  the  circuit  court  in  the  county 
and  the  circuit  or  corporation  court  in  the  city.  Cases 
tried  in  these  courts  are  often  appealed — that  is,  carried 
to  higher  courts.  This  is  especially  true  of  civil  suits; 
there  must  be  special  reasons  for  carrying  criminal  cases 
to  other  courts.  The  supreme  court  is  the  highest  state 

136 


court,  but  from  its  decisions  there  is  an  appeal  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  in  certain  cases.  But 
since  the  latter  court  can  only  hear  cases  that  concern 
in  some  way  the  powers  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, most  cases  go  no  farther  than  the  state  courts. 

Penalties  for  Crime. — Crime  is  a  serious  matter.  In 
former  times  nearly  all  crimes  were  punished  by  death : 
theft  of  property  of  more  than  a  shilling's  worth;  for- 
gery; counterfeiting;  robbery;  housebreaking  and  bur- 
glary, and  others.  Small  offenses  met  with  such  pen- 
alties as  the  pillory,  which  was  a  wooden  board  that 
held  the  hands  fast,  or  the  stocks,  which  was  a  frame 
that  confined  the  legs.  The  prisoner  in  the  pillory  or 
stocks  had  to  remain  motionless  for  hours  in  some  public 
place,  exposed  to  heat  or  cold  and  the  insults  of  passers- 
by.  Other  offenses  were  punished  by  public  whip- 
pings; the  whipping  post  was  a  prominent  feature  of 
every  community  a  century  or  so  ago. 

Improvement  in  Law. — People  felt  that  such  laws 
were  too  severe,  that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  re- 
claim criminals  rather  than  kill  or  hurt  them.  In  the 
United  States,  Thomas  Jefferson  was  among  the  first 
to  soften  the  laws:  he  revised  the  criminal  code  of 
Virginia.  About  a  century  and  a  quarter  ago  peniten- 
tiaries began  to  be  built,  and  criminals  were  confined  in 
them  for  a  term  instead  of  being  hanged  or  whipped  for 
offenses.  Before  this  time  prisoners  had  been  kept  in 
jail  awaiting  trial  or  until  the  payment  of  their  debts, 
but  not  as  punishment. 

Laws  Benefit  All. — Because  of , the  laws  against  kill- 
ing or  injuring  people  and  taking  their  property  from 
them,  the  great  majority  of  persons  go  about  their  work 

137 


ill  security.  Many  crimes  are  indeed  committed,  but 
they  are  few  in  comparison  with  the  number  of  people 
who  go  through  their  lives  without  criminal  injuries. 
It  is  the  duty  of  all  citizens  to  teach  respect  for  law  by 
their  example.  People  are  often  tempted  to  violate  the 
law  in  small  ways,  such  as  failing  to  obey  the  traffic 
regulations.  Small  violations  of  law,  however,  tend  in 
the  long  run  to  weaken  the  respect  of  the  public  for 
law,  and  in  that  way  to  injure  the  community. 

Anarchy. — The  condition  when  law  is  generally  un- 
observed, or  when  there  is  no  such  thing  as  law,  is 
called  anarchy.  Wherever  there  is  anarchy  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  people  are  terrible.  Murder  and  robbery  go 
unpunished;  the  brutal  overpower  the  weak;  and 
human  beings  become  like  beasts.  Probably  the  great- 
est evil  that  can  befall  a  community — local  or  national 
— is  to  fall  into  anarchy. 

Progress  and  Law. — Human  progress  is  to  a  large 
extent  the  result  of  law.  Because  the  law  has  protected 
the  lives  and  property  of  men  they  have  gone  about 
their  work  in  peace,  built  homes,  saved  money,  and 
made  disco veTies  and  inventions.  Those  countries 
where  the  law  is  enforced  are  usually  prosperous  and 
happy:  countries  where  the  law  may  be  broken  with- 
out much  danger  of  punishment  are  nearly  always 
backward  and  miserable.  In  such  lands  life  is  never 
safe,  and  everyone  fears  that  robbers  will  take  his  prop- 
erty. In  the  following  chapter  we  shall  study  the 
methods  of  the  government  in  seeking  to  find  the  prob- 
able criminal  when  a  prime  has  been  committed  and  then 
to  determine  whether  the  accused  person  is  guilty  or 
innocent. 

138 


Prison  Reform.— Confinement  in  prison  has  under- 
gone a  great  change  from  early  times.  Children  were 
kept  in  prison  with  older  criminals,  a  practice  which 
Jiardened  them  in  wrongdoing.  The  inmates  were 
harshly  treated  by  the  prison  officials :  they  wore  repul- 
sive clothes;  they  worked  hard,  or  were  kept  in  solitary 
confinement;  they  had  almost  no  recreations  to  lighten 
their  dark  days.  Few  of  them  ever  reformed,  because 
the  treatment  they  received  tended  to  drive  them  to 
despair.  But  at  present  imprisonment  is  very  different. 
Convicts  are  now  kept  in  prison,  not  only  because  they 
would  be  'a  danger  to  the  community  if  they  were 
allowed  to  run  free,  but  in  order  to  reform  them.  Many 
criminals  are  ignorant  men  who  have  had  no  home  train- 
ing, and  who  commit  crimes  without  clearly  understand- 
ing the  wrongfulness  of  their  acts.  In  prison  they  are 
taught  right  and  wrong,  and  are  frequently  led  to  a 
better  life.  They  are  given  good  books  to  read,  and 
they  have  pleasures  and  outdoor  sports  as  well  as 
duties.  Children  are  no  longer  kept  in  prisons  with 
grown  criminals.  When  they  commit  crimes,  they  are 
sent  to  reformatories,  where  they  receive  a  good  moral 
training  and  are  taught  trades.  Often  they  become 
useful  citizens  when  they  go  out  into  the  world.  At 
present,  criminals  sometimes  have  their  sentences  sus- 
pended— that  is,  they  do  not  go  to  prison  so  long  as 
they  live  rightly — while  other  criminals  are  released 
from  the  penitentiary  after  serving  a  part  of  their  sen- 
tences, and  do  not  have  to  go  back  unless  they  break 
the  laws  again.  In  the  same  way,  children  who  have 
committed  offenses  are  put  on  probation — that  is, 
they  are  permitted  to  go  at  large  so  long  as  they 

139 


behave  themselves  and  report  to  the  court  at  regular 
intervals.  The  tendency  of  modern  imprisonment  for 
crime  is  to  fit  inmates  of  prisons  and  reformatories  for 
the  struggle  of  life,  so  that  the  weak  and  ignorant  may 
gain  strength  and  knowledge.  The  theory  is  that  one 
who  commits  a  crime  is,  in  a  sense,  sick  and  in  need  of 
moral  and  mental  treatment  of  a  certain  kind  which 
will  bring  him  into  harmony  with  the  world. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Appoint  a  committee  to  visit  your  county  jail  and  find  out  why  the 
prisoners  are  confined. 

2.  Tell  what  you  know  of  prison  improvement. 

3.  Debate  this  question:    Resolved,  That  capital  punishment  should 
be  abolished. 


140 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

TRIALS 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  various  stages  of  a  trial; 
and  (£)  to  learn  why  the  forms  of  the  law  should  be  strictly 
observed. 

Criminal  Investigation. — When  a  crime  has  been 
committed,  the  officers  of  the  law  at  once  arrest  the 
person  or  the  persons  known  or  suspected  to  b.e  guilty, 
if  there  is  knowledge  or  strong  suspicion.  Sometimes, 
however,  not  only  is  the  identity  of  the  criminal  un- 
known but  it  is  even  uncertain  whether  or  not  a  crime 
has  actually  been  committed.  This  often  happens  in 
the  case  of  mysterious  deaths.  The  coroner,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  investigate  all  cases  of  death  by  violence 
or  from  unknown  causes,  forms  a  coroner's  jury,  and 
this  jury  decides  if  there  is  good  reason  for  suspecting 
a  crime. 

The  Grand  Jury. — In  the  case  of  murder  and  of  all 
other  grave  crimes,  a  grand  jury,  so  called  because  it 
usually  consists  of  a  rather  large  number  of  members, 
sits  to  consider  the  evidence.  If  a  murder  has  been 
committed  and  the  criminal  is  unknown,  the  officers  of 
the  law — the  sheriff  and  prosecuting  attorney — with 
the  help  of  police  or  detectives,  seek  to  discover  clues 
that  will  fasten  the  guilt  on  some  one.  If  the  evidence 
seems  sufficient,  a  warrant  is  issued  by  the  officers  of 
the  law  and  the  suspected  person  is  arrested  and  lodged 
in  jail.  In  less  serious  offenses,  he  will  be  released  for 

141 


a  time  if  he  can  find  friends  to  go  bail  for  him.  That 
is,  the  suspected  person  is  freed  when  some  other 
persons  agree  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  if  he 
fails  to  appear  for  trial  at  a  certain  date,  and  give 
security  for  it.  Persons  suspected  of  murder  are 
usually  not  bailed.  At  a  certain  time  the  grand  jury, 
which  may  be  the  regular  jury  that  considers  all 
crimes  committed  within  a  period  of  time,  or  a  special 
jury  convened  for  the  case,  hears  the  evidence  and 
decides  whether  or  not  the  suspected  person  should  be 
held  for  trial. 

The  Indictment. — If  the  grand  jury  finds  that  the 
evidence  points  to  the  guilt  of  the  suspected  person, 
he  is  held  for  trial  and  an  indictment  is  framed.  The 
indictment  is  a  statement  of  facts  about  the  crime 
committed  and  it  must  be  drawn  in  strict  conformity 
with  the  law  or  else  the  trial  that  follows  may  be 
thrown  out  by  a  higher  court.  The  indictment  is  the 
act  that  hands  the  suspected  person  from  the  grand 
jury  to  the  trial  jury. 

The  Petit  Jury. — The  trial  jury  is  known  as  the 
petit,  or  little  jury,  because  it  is  smaller  than  the  grand 
jury,  consisting  of  twelve  men  or  twelve  men  and 
women.  Why  is  a  man  accused  of  crime  tried  by  a 
jury  at  all?  The  practice  comes  down  from  the  distant 
past  of  England,  when  persons  on  trial  often  could  not 
depend  on  judges  for  right  treatment.  It  was  found 
that  a  man  had  a  better  chance  to  secure  justice  when  a 
jury  of  his  neighbors  sat  to  decide  if  he  had  com- 
mitted a  crime  than  when  a  judge,  who  might  have 
reasons  to  be  unfair,  decided  the  matter.  Conse- 
quently, trial  by  jury  became  fixed  in  English  law  and 

142 


the  usage  has  descended  to  us.  The  jury  is  chosen  by 
lot  from  a  number  of  names  in  a  box.  Both  the  prose- 
cuting attorney  and  the  attorney  for  the  defense  have 
the  right  to  challenge  the  selection  of  persons  whom 
they  think  may  not  be  just  to  their  side  of  the  case. 

Fairness  of  the  Jury. — The  law  lays  much  stress  on 
getting  unprejudiced  jurors.  Persons  called  for  jury 
duty  are  always  asked  if  they  have  read  newspaper 
accounts  of  the  crime  and  made  up  their  minds  as  to 
the  guilt  of  the  person  accused.  If  they  have  done  so, 
they  are  not  accepted  as  jurymen.  How  careful  the 
law  is  to  secure  fair-minded  juries  is  illustrated  by  the 
famous  Chicago  anarchist  case  of  1886. 

In  May,  1886,  as  police  officers  were  dispersing  a  meeting 
of  strikers  in  Chicago,  some  unknown  person  threw  a  bomb, 
killing  and  wounding  a  number  of  tjie  policemen.  Since  the 
anarchists  of  Chicago,  by  means  of  publications  and  speeches, 
had  been  urging  strikers  to  commit  dynamite  outrages,  they 
were  brought  to  trial  as  accomplices,  or  aiders,  in  the  mur- 
ders. Public  feeling  in  Chicago  ran  high  against,  them. 
Large  numbers  of  people  were  examined  for  jury  duty  and 
were  not  accepted  on  account  of  their  having  formed  a  posi- 
tive opinion  on  the  case.  Not  until  weeks  had  passed  and 
nearly  a  thousand  men  had  been  examined  was  a  jury  at 
length  selected. 

The  Trial. — The  prosecuting  attorney,  or  common- 
wealth's attorney,  begins  the  trial  by  bringing  forward 
the  "witnesses  for  the  prosecution."  These  are  person^ 
whose  testimony  tends  to  prove  that  the  accused  has 
committed  the  crime.  After  they  have  told  their 
stories,  the  attorney  for  the  defense  seeks  to  break 
down  their  evidence  by  cross-examining  them — that  is, 
attempting  by  means  of  questions  to  catch  them  in 
contradictory  statements  and  so  make  it  appear  that 

143 


they  are  mistaken.  In  the  same  way,  the  prosecuting 
attorney  cross-examines  the  witnesses  for  the  defense, 
whose  statements  go  to  show  that  the  defendant  did 
not  commit  the  crime.  When  the  witnesses  on  both 
sides  are  dismissed,  the  prosecuting  attorney  and  the 
attorney  for  the  defense  sum  up  the  case  in  speeches. 


Courtesy  of  the  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger 

A  TRIAL  IN  PROGRESS 

The  judge  then  reviews  the  evidence  and  tells  the  jury 
what  the  law  is.  The  final  act  takes  place  when  the 
jury  goes  to  a  private  room  and  decides  on  its  verdict. 
Sometimes  hours  or  days  pass  before  an  agreement  can 
be  reached,  for  it  is  necessary  for  the  decision  of  a  jury 
in  a  criminal  trial  to  be  unanimous,  though  not  always 
so  in  civil  suits  in  some  states.  When  the  jury  has 

144 


agreed  on  a  verdict,  it  goes  back  to  the  court  room,  and 
the  foreman  informs  the  judge.  In  case  of  murder  in 
the  first  degree,  the  law  usually  fixes  the  punishment  at 
death  or  imprisonment  for  life.  In  other  crimes,  the 
judge  in  some  states  determines  what  the  prison  sen- 
tence shall  be:  he  has  great  latitude  in  this  respect. 
In  case  the  jury  reports  "Not  guilty,"  the  person  on 
trial  is  at  once  released  and  he  cannot  be  tried  again 
for  the  same  crime  even  though  new  evidence  comes  to 
light.  By  English  law,  which  in  its  principles  is  also 
American  law,  a  man  can  be  tried  only  once  on  a  charge 
unless  the  jury  fails  to  render  a  verdict  one  way  or  the 
other. 

Necessary  to  Prove  Guilt. — In  some  countries  of 
the  world,  persons  on  trial  have  to  prove  their  inno- 
cence. By  English  and  American  law,  a  man  is  sup- 
posed to  be  innocent  until  he  is  proved  guilty.  Actual 
proof  is  necessary :  no  matter  how  strong  the  belief  in 
the  prisoner's  guilt  may  be,  he  is  released  unless  evi- 
dence is  brought  forward  by  the  prosecution.  This 
attempt  of  the  law  to  protect  the  rights  of  persons 
being  tried  is  well  illustrated  in  the  famous  trial  of 
Aaron  Burr  for  treason  in  1807. 

Aaron  Burr,  who  had  been  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  put  on  trial  in  1807  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  before 
the  United  States  court,  with  Chief  Justice  Marshall  pre- 
siding. It  was  very  generally  believed  that  Burr  intended 
to  separate  the  Southwest  from  the  United  States  and  set 
up  another  republic  or  an  empire  and  that  he  had  raised  a 
body  of  armed  men  for  that  purpose.  That  he  had  raised  a 
body  of  armed  men  for  some  purpose  was  certain,  but  it 
was  not  shown  that  he  had  actually  done  anything  hostile 
to  the  United  States.  Justice  Marshall  summed  up  the 
evidence  in  favor  of  Burr,  because  the  Constitution  of  the 

145 


United  States  declares  that  treason  consists  in  making  war 
against  the  United  States  or  in  aiding  an  enemy  to  make 
war  and  it  had  not  been  proved  that  Burr  had  done  this. 
Burr  was  thereupon  acquitted,  though  the  jury  was  so  hostile 
to  him  that  instead  of  rendering  a  verdict  of  "Not  guilty," 
it  brought  in  one  of  "Not  proven." 

Witnesses  Must  be  Allowed  to  Testify. — In  another 
way  the  law  seeks  to  protect  a  person  on  trial.  It 
affords  him  every  opportunity  to  bring  forward  testi- 
mony in  his  favor.  The  attorney  for  the  defense  has 
the  right  to  present  anybody  who  has  evidence  to  give, 
and  the  prosecuting  attorney  cannot  hinder  this.  The 
judge  sees  that  both  sides  in  the  case  have  fair  play 
during  the  trial.  In  the  one  celebrated  instance  in 
American  history  where  a  judge  was  notably  unfair  to 
the  accused,  he  himself  was  later  brought  to  trial  and 
narrowly  escaped  removal  from  the  bench  by  way  of 
punishment. 

Right  of  Appeal. — In  the  effort  to  secure  justice,  the 
law  permits  a  person  convicted  of  crime  to  appeal  from 
the  court  in  which  the  case  is  tried  to  a  higher  court 
if  any  mistake  or  irregularity  has  occurred  in  the 
trial.  If  the  higher  court  finds  that  the  case  has  not 
been  tried  in  full  agreement  with  the  law,  it  may  order 
a  new  trial.  If  this  is  done,  a  new  jury  is  drawn  and 
the  evidence  is  once  more  presented.  It  often  happens 
that  a  second  trial  results  in  the  acquittal  of  the  prisoner 
or  in  a  lightening  of  his  sentence.  Thus  while  a  man 
who  is  acquitted  cannot  be  tried  a  second  time  for  the 
same  offense,  a  man  who  has  been  convicted  may  be, 
provided  that  a  court  of  appeals  decides  that  the 
trial  has  not  been  entirely  in  agreement  with  the  law 
or  there  is  some  other  weighty  reason.  This  is  a  good 

146 


illustration  of  the  intent  of  the  law  to  prevent  innocent 
persons  from  being  convicted  of  crime  and  suffering 
unmerited  punishment. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

Have  legal  forms  an  important  meaning?    Why  do  you  think  so? 
What  are  some  of  the  safeguards  of  the  law? 
What  legal  principle  is  Illustrated  by  the  Burr  trial? 
Why  must  the  jury  agree  in  a  criminal  trial? 

2.  Describe  the  process  by  which  a  jury  is  chosen.     What  instances 
'  can  you  give  of  the  care  of  the  law  in  selecting  jurymen? 

3.  During  the  next  session  of  your  circuit  or  corporation  court  visit 
the  court  room  and  watch  the  proceedings. 

4.  Stage  a  mock  trial,  following  the  procedure  of  your  court. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

CITY  GOVERNMENT 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  various  forms  of  city 
government;  and  (2)  to  discuss  the  best  form. 

How  a  Village  Grows  into  a  Town. — A  village  con- 
sisting of,  let  us  say,  a  store,  a  church,  and  half  a 
dozen  homes  has  no  occasion  for  a  government  separate 
from  the  county  or  district  in  which  it  is  situated. 
When,  however,  the  village  grows  into  a  place  of  a 
thousand  or  more  inhabitants,  it  has  needs  which  begin 
to  cut  it  off  from  the  county:  it  must  have  streets, 
lights,  sewers,  a  water  system,  policemen,  and  firemen. 
The  community  therefore  becomes  incorporated;  that 
is,  it  gets  from  the  legislature  a  town  charter  which 
permits  it  to  have  a  mayor  and  council  and  a  few 
officers  of  its  own.  But  the  town  does  not  separate 
entirely  from  the  county;  it  is  still,  to  some  extent,  a 
part  of  the  county,  having  many  things  in  common  with 
the  county. 

How  the  Town  Becomes  a  City. — As  the  years  go 
by,  this  town  or  borough  may  grow  into  a  place  of 
many  thousand  people,  with  factories  and  mills.  It 
needs  a  government  strictly  its  own  and  obtains  a  city 
charter  from  the  legislature.  In  many  states  it  then 
becomes  entirely  separate  from  the  county  within  whose 
limits  it  lies.  The  county  has  one  government,  the 
city  another  and  distinct  government  of  its  own.  In 
some  states,  however,  a  city  remains  a  part  of  the 

143 


county.  The  city  charter  enumerates  the  officers  and 
departments  the  city  is  to  have,  with  their  powers,  and 
tells  how  the  city  laws,  or  ordinances,  are  to  be  made 
and  how  the  funds  are  to  be  raised  for  the  city  govern- 
ment. The  powers  of  this  government  are  strictly 
defined  by  the  charter;  it  cannot  do  anything  that  is 
not  expressly  permitted  by  the  charter. 

The  Three  Forms  of  City  Government. — There  are 
three  forms  of  city  government,  the  council,  the  com- 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

NEW  YORK  SKYLINE 

mission,  and  the  city  or  business  manager.  In  the 
first  form,  the  council  is  the  chief  arm  of  the  govern- 
ment; in  the  second,  a  commission  is  in  authority;  in 
the  third,  a  single  person,  the  city  manager,  directs 
affairs.  The  council  is  the  old  form  of  city  govern- 
ment and  most  cities  are  still  conducted  under  it.  The 
commission  and  city  manager  types  of  government 
came  into  existence  not  many  years  ago;  a  number  of 
cities  have  adopted  one  or  the  other  of  these  newer 
systems. 

149 


Branches  of  City  Government. — City  .government, 
like  state  and  national,  has  three  branches — the 
executive,  the  legislative,  the  judicial.  In  the  council 
system,  city  government  closely  resembles  state  and 
national  government;  but  in  the  commission  and  city 
manager  plans  the  difference  is  radical. 

Executive  Branch. — The  mayor  is  the  head  of  the 
executive  branch  of  the  government  in  the  council 
plan.  His  duties  are  important.  He  has  charge  of  the 
city  just  as  the  president  of  a  manufacturing  company 
has  general  control  of  the  factory.  He  must  see  that 
the  various  departments  do  their  work  properly.  He 
usually  appoints  and  removes  the  heads  of  departments. 
He  advises  the  council  on  the  passage  of  city  laws,  or 
ordinances,  and  the  raising  of  revenue.  At  one  time 
the  mayor  was  also  the  judge  of  the  city  police  court, 
but  this  duty  has  been  taken  from  him.  The  mayor, 
however,  continues  to  preside  at  public  meetings  and 
to  welcome  distinguished  visitors  to  the  city.  In  the 
commission  form  of  government,  the  mayor  is  one  of 
the  commissioners  and  has  little  more  power  than  his 
associates.  In  the  city  manager  government,  the 
mayor  has  even  less  power. 

The  Departments.— Large  cities  have  many  de- 
partments, sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  New  York, 
employing  thousands  of  clerks.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  departments  in  a  certain  city  of  200,000  people  • 

Schools.  Public  Utilities. 

Law.  Public  Works. 

Finance.  Public  Welfare. 

The  department  of  law  represents  the  city  in  suits 
and  gives  it  legal  advice;  that  of  finance  collects  and 

150 


disburses  the  city's  funds;  that  of  public  welfare  takes 
care  of  the  purity  of  the  food  supply,  hospitals,  public 
baths,  and  street  cleaning;  that  of  public  utilities 
manages  the  gas,  water,  and  electric  lighting  plants 
of  the  city;  that  of  public  works  cares  for  the  making 
and  upkeep  of  streets,  bridges,  playgrounds,  parks,  and 
cemeteries;  that  of  schools  attends  to  public  education. 

Legislative  Branch. — In  the  council  government, 
the  legislative  branch  is  the  most  important.  The  size 
of  the  council  varies  considerably  in  different  cities, 
being  larger  in  large  cities.  The  members  are  not  paid 
and  serve  from  a  sense  of  duty  or  as  a  means  of  bring- 
ing themselves  to  public  notice.  Meetings  are  usually 
held  every  week  or  two  weeks.  The  council  sometimes 
wields  a  great  power,  authorizing  public  works  that 
cost  millions  of  dollars.  In  the  commission  and  city 
manager  governments,  the  council  lessens  in  importance. 
Cities  may  not  even  have  a  council,  since  the  com- 
mission may  take  its  place.  In  city  manager  govern- 
ment the  council  usually  passes  measures  recommended 
by  the  city  manager.  The  city  council  ordinarily  con- 
sists of  two  bodies,  the  board  of  aldermen  and  the 
common  council.  In  most  cities,  the  members  of  the 
council  are  elected  from  wards  into  which  the  city  is 
divided;  sometimes  the  whole  body  of  voters  elects  the 
entire  council. 

How  Ordinances  are  Passed. — You  may  be  inter- 
ested to  know  how  an  ordinance  is  passed.  The  council 
is  a  rather  informal  body,  very  unlike  legislatures  and 
Congress,  which  have  elaborate  rules.  Discussion  is 
more  or  less  open,  much  like  the  meetings  of  boards. 
A  member  of  one  branch  of  the  council  introduces  a 

151 


measure,  often  after  getting  the  advice  of  the  city 
attorney.  The  proposed  ordinance  is  then  referred  to 
a  committee,  which  considers  it  and  sends  it  back  to 
the  council  with  a  favorable  or  unfavorable  report.  If 
it  is  passed  in  this  branch  of  the  council,  it  is  then  sent 
on  to  the  other  branch,  where  the  same  course  is 
followed.  After  it  has  passed  both  branches,  it  goes  to 
the  mayor  for  approval.  The  council  committees  usually 
correspond  to  the  departments  of  the  city  government. 
Sometimes  they  are  important,  because  in  some  cases 
efforts  are  made  to  smuggle  improper  measures  through 
committees  and  have  them  passed  as  ordinances. 

The  City  Budget. — Many  cities  now  have  what  is 
called  a  budget.  The  budget  shows  how  much  money 
the  city  will  have  for  the  coming  year  and  divides  it 
among  the  various  departments  according  to  their 
wants.  Each  department  tries  to  convince  the  finance 
committee,  which  makes  the  budget,  that  it  needs  more 
money  than  is  assigned  it,  and  frequent  "hearings"  are 
devoted  to  the  budget. 

Judicial  Branch. — In  some  cities  there  is  a  circuit  or 
district  court.  Other  cities  have  no  circuit  court  but 
only  the  corporation  or  hustings  court.  The  police 
court,  presided  over  by  the  police  judge,  hears  cases  in 
which  people  are  charged  with  violations  of  the  city 
ordinances — also  small  crimes,  such  as  petty  thefts, 
and  some  other  cases.  The  juvenile  court  tries  the 
cases  of  children  of  certain  ages.  Children  are  rarely 
punished  by  juvenile  courts  for  first  offenses;  they  are 
put  "on  probation" — that  is,  they  are  allowed  to  go 
home  but  are  required  to  appear  before  the  judge  at 
intervals  and  show  that  they  are  behaving  properly, 

153 


The  probation  method  has  sometimes  turned  reckless 
boys  into  good  citizens.  There  are  many  other  city 
courts.  In  some  cities  there  are  criminal  courts  dealing 
only  with  crimes.  The  law  and  equity  court  handles 
disputes  arising  from  property  and  contracts.  The 
orphan9 s  or  probate  court  admits  wills  to  record,  settles 
estates  left  by  deceased  persons,  and  appoints  guardians 
for  children. 

The  People's  Share  in  City  Government. — The 
government  of  a  great  city,  spending  many  millions  of 
dollars  a  year,  is  a  complex  and  difficult  matter.  It 
has  been  hard,  however,  to  arouse  the  people  of  the 
United  States  to  the  importance  of  city  government. 
For  this  reason  many  abuses  in  the  management  of 
municipal  affairs  have  arisen.  A  few  years 'ago  cities 
were  frequently  governed  by  small  groups  of  politicians 
and  business  men  without  regard  to  the  public  welfare. 
That  was  the  day  of  the  "boss,"  who  kept  his  friends  in 
power  and  had  ordinances  passed  for  the  benefit  of 
certain  interests.  But  there  has  been  so  strong  a 
revolt  against  this  system  that  in  many  cities  bosses  no 
longer  exist.  Such  organizations  as  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  and  the  Civic  Improvement  Association 
have  helped  city  government  by  carrying  on  campaigns 
for  needed  changes  and  improvements.  The  news- 
papers, by  attacking  corrupt  methods,  have  done  much 
to  bring  about  a  better  era  in  city  government. 

Council  Form. — As  said  before,  the  oldest  form  of 
city  government  and  the  one  followed  in  most  cities  is 
the  council  form.  Its  features  have  been  included  in 
the  foregoing  discussion. 

Commission  Form. — The  commission  city  govern- 

154 


ment  grew  out  of  the  demand  for  better  administration. 
It  was  felt  that  the  councils  were  usually  too  large  and 
too  busy  to  do  their  work  properly,  for  councilmen  are 
not  able  to  devote  much  time  to  piublic  affairs.  People 
came  to  believe  that  city  government  would  be  better 
if  it  was  looked  on  as  business  rather  than  politics, 
and  that  trained  experts  would  handle  the  government 
more  efficiently  and  economically  than  politicians.  For 
these  reasons  the  commission  government  came  into 
existence — originally  at  Galveston,  Texas.  Under  this 
plan  there  are  three  or  five  commissioners,  elected  by 
the  people  for  a  certain  term  of  years.  They  are  some- 
times associated  with  a  council,  but  in  other  cases  pass 
the  laws  as  well  as  carry  them  out.  The  commissioners 
therefore  are  in  complete  control  of  the  city  for  the  term 
of  their  office,  appointing  and  removing  officials  and 
seeing  that  the  departments  are  rightly  conducted.  If 
they  do  not  give  satisfaction,  they  are  defeated  for 
another  term  in  the  following  election. 

City  Manager. — The  city  manager  government  is  a 
kind  of  compromise  between  the  council  and  commission 
plans.  The  city  manager  has  far  greater  power  than 
the  mayor  in  the  council  governiment:  his  control  of 
the  departments  is  usually  absolute  and  the  council 
ordinarily  passes  such  ordinances  as  he  wishes.  But 
the  council  is  not  done  away  with;  it  exists  and  has 
some  power,  especially  over  finances.  It  thus  acts  as  a 
sort  of  check  on  the  city  manager.  This  plan  of  mu- 
nicipal government  originated  in  Staunton,  Virginia. 
Dayton,  Ohio,  and  some  other  important  cities  have 
adopted  it  and  it  seems  to  be  more  popular  at  present 
than  the  commission  plan. 

155 


CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  officers  of  your  city  who  are  elected  by  the  people 
and  another  list  of  those  who  are  appointed. 

2.  Appoint  classmates  to  make  reports  on  council  government;  on  the 
city  manager  plan;   on  the  commission  form  of  government. 

3.  Appoint  a  classmate  to  report  on  the  form  of  government  in  your 
town. 

4.  Vote  on  the  plan  of  city  government  which  you  think  best. 

5.  Appoint  a  committee  to  examine  your  city  charter  and  report  on  it. 
They  should  tell  how  the  charter  can  be  changed. 

6.  Place  on  your  bulletin  board  all  the  clippings  from  the  newspapers 
that  refer  to  new  ordinances  passed  by  your  city  council.     Include  also 
clippings  that  tell  of  the  work  of  the  different  city  departments. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

COUNTY  GOVERNMENT 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  county  government;  and  (2) 
to  find  out  all  you  can  about  county  officers. 

Importance  of  the  Local  Community. — When  we  are 
about  to  elect  a  President,  or  when  we  are  at  war  with 
a  foreign  country,  we  hear  a  great  deal  about  the  nation. 
When  a  governor  and  members  of  the  legislature  are  to 
be  elected,  we  hear  much  about  the  state.  After  all, 
however,  the  most  important  government  to  us  is  that 
with  which  we  come  in  closest  contact — that  of  our 
county,  town,  or  city.  Every  year  your  father  has  to 
pay  his  taxes.  The  amount  depends  largely  upon  what 
it  costs  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  county  or  city. 
Do  you  have  good  roads,  streets,  and  schools?  Your 
county  government  is  good  or  bad  according  to  the 
answer  made  to  these  questions.  It  is  therefore  im- 
portant to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  local  govern- 
ment, so  that  when  you  are  grown  you  may  know  its 
needs  and  vote  for  officers  who  will  attend  to  them 
honestly  and  skillfully. 

Origin  of  the  County. — Long  before  our  country  was 
settled  the  county  form  of  government  existed  in 
England.  The  colonists  who  settled  in  Virginia  brought 
this  form  of  local  government  with  them,  and  gradually 
each  state  has  been  divided  into  counties.  The  New 
England  colonies  did  not  have  this  kind  of  local  govern- 
ment, but  each  little  settlement  or  town  governed  itself. 

157 


Although  the  New  England  states  are  now  divided  into 
counties,  yet  the  people  of  this  section  still  cling  to 
their  "Town  Meeting."  It  has  thus  come  about  that 
there  are  different  types  of  counties  in  different  states. 
The  chief  difference  is  that  in  some  states  the  county 
government  practically  controls  all  important  local 
affairs,  while  in  other  states  the  district  or  township  is  the 
main  unit  in  county  government.  In  Virginia  and  other 
states,  the  different  districts  of  the  county  are  not  very 
important.  The  taxes  are  levied  and  all  the  county 
affairs  are  managed  by  a  board  of  supervisors  or  com- 
missioners who  meet  regularly  at  the  county  seat. .  In 
the  New  England  states,  on  the  contrary,  each  district 
or  "town"  governs  itself,  and  the  county  has  little 
power. 

"Town  Meeting."— The  "Town  Meeting"  in  New 
England  (which  is  a  district  meeting)  is  a  very  inter- 
esting event.  The  voters  come  together  once  a  year, 
vote  on  the  tax  rate,  choose  their  selectmen,  school 
trustees,  and  other  officials,  and  decide  all  other  ques- 
tions brought  up  for  discussion.  The  fact  that  most 
citizens  take  part  in  these  meetings  and  mingle  in  the 
discussions  has  had  much  to  do  with  training  the  people 
in  self-government  and  democratic  customs. 

County  Supervisors  or  Commissioners. — In  many 
states  the  most  important  county  officers  are  the  super- 
visors or  commissioners.  They  come  together  at  the 
courthouse,  just  as  a  town  or  city  council  meets  in  the 
city  hall,  and  decide  all  important  questions  for  the 
county.  They  fix  the  tax  rate,  appropriate  money  for 
schools  and  roads,  maintain  county  hospitals  and  farms 
for  the  sick  and  for  paupers,  offer  rewards  for  the 

158 


capture  of  criminals,  and  pass  such  laws  for  the  county 
as  the  state  permits  counties  to  pass.  The  legislative 
power  of  the  county  government  is  not  large.  County 
government  is  mainly  executive. 

The  Sheriff. — You  are  perhaps  familiar  with  the 
duties  of  the  sheriff  of  your  county.  He  has  charge  of 
the  jail,  arrests  criminals,  preserves  the  peace,  and  in 
some  states  collects  the  taxes.  He  is  the  most  respon- 


A  MODERN  BRIDGE 

sible  officer  in  the  county,  because  the  preservation  of 
order  depends  on  him. 

The  Superintendent  of  Schools. — This  officer  has 
general  charge  of  all  the  public  schools  of  the  county. 
In  many  sections  of  the  country  the  county  superin- 
tendent acts  largely  as  an  adviser,  because  each  district 
or  town  has  a  school  board  on  which  rests  the  duty  of 
managing  the  schools.  You  should  make  a  careful 
study  of  how  your  schools  are  conducted.  Who  makes 
the  rules  for  pupils  and  teachers?  How  are  the  school 

159 


trustees  chosen?  Do  you  have  a  county  school  board, 
or  does  each  district  have  trustees?  What  does  it  cost 
each  year  to  run  your  school,  and  where  do  the  funds 
come  from? 

The  Clerk  of  the  Court.— This  officer  has  many 
important  duties.  He  records  deeds  and  wills,  issues 
marriage  licenses,  and  keeps  the  records  of  all  cases 
tried  in  the  courts.  Have  you  ever  visited  the  clerk's 
office  at  the  courthouse?  It  is  very  interesting  to  see 
the  great  books  in  which  the  records  are  kept  and  the 
fireproof  cases  in  which  these  books  are  protected 
against  fire. 

The  Prosecuting  Attorney. — This  officer  is  a  lawyer, 
of  course,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  prosecute  all  persons 
charged  with  crime.  If  a  man  commits  a  crime,  the 
sheriff  arrests  him  and  places  him  in  jail  until  he  can 
be  tried.  When  he  is  brought  to  trial,  the  prosecuting 
attorney  conducts  the  case  against  him  and  tries  to 
convict  him,  provided  the  evidence  tends  to  show  that 
he  is  guilty. 

Other  County  Officers. — Other  officers  are  treasurer; 
tax  assessor;  coroner;  road  engineer;  health  officer; 
constable,  and  justice  of  the  peace. 

How  County  Officers  Are  Chosen. — The  supervisors, 
sheriff,  clerk  of  the  court,  and  most  other  county  officers 
are  elected  by  the  voters,  usually  for  a  term  of  from  two 
to  four  years.  If  they  are  honest  and  capable,  the 
county's  business  will  be  economically  and  wisely  con- 
ducted. It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  all  grown  persons  to 
become  voters  and  help  to  put  into  office  the  most 
capable  men. 

County    Courts.— Formerly    in    many    states    each 

160 


county  had  its  own  court,  which  tried  all  the  cases  relat- 
ing to  that  county.  In  most  states  at  present  there  are 
circuit,  or  district,  courts  comprising  several  counties, 
or  a  city  and  one  or  more  counties.  The  circuit  judge 
holds  court  at  one  county  courthouse  in  his  circuit  and 
then  goes  to  another.  This  system  reduces  somewhat 
the  cost  of  maintaining  courts.  There  is  also  a  chancery 
court,  usually  presided  over  by  the  circuit  judge,  to 
hear  certain  cases;  and  justices'  courts,  which  try  such 
small  offenses  as  are  dealt  with  in  cities  by  the  police 
court. 

How  the  County  Gets  Money. — Money  is  needed  to 
pay  the  salaries  of  the  officers,  and  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  a  county.  Thousands  of  dollars  must  be  spent 
annually  on  schools  and  roads.  This  money  is  raised 
by  levying  taxes  on.  each  person  according  to  the  prop- 
erty he  owns;  corporations,  such  as  railroads  and 
mining  companies,  pay  taxes  as  well  as  individuals. 
Some  persons  give  false  information  about  the  value  of 
their  property  in  order  to  escape  paying  their  just 
share.  The  good  citizen- is  willing  to  do  his  full  part 
toward  paying  the  expenses  of  his  county  or  town 
government. 

The  County  and  the  State. — The  county  is  a  part  of 
the  state,  and  as  such  must  obey  all  state  laws.  If  the 
legislature  passes  a  law  requiring  all  children  to  attend 
school,  the  county  cannot  change  this  law.  The  courts 
in  a  county  are  state  courts;  when  a  person  commits  a 
theft  or  attempts  to  kill  another  person  he  is  violating 
the  state  law.  Most  states  now  help  the  counties  to 
support  schools  and  build  roads,  and  in  doing  so  make 
laws  setting  forth  in  what  manner  schools  shall  be  con- 

161 


ducted  and  how  roads  shall  be  built.  Some  people 
argue  that  the  state  will  gradually  exercise  so  much 
authority  that  there  will  be  no  need  for  county  govern- 
ment. But  this  is  improbable. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  See  how  many  of  these  questions  you  can  answer: 

How  many  counties  are  in  your  state? 

How  many  districts  or  townships  are  in  your  county? 

Are  the  supervisors  or  commissioners  elected  from  the  county 

at  large  or  by  districts  and  townships? 
Has  your  county  government  a  head  whose  duties  are  similar 

to  those  of  the  mayor  of  a  city  or  the  governor  of  a  state? 
What  officers  of  your  county  are  not  elected  by  the  people? 
Why  is  the  justice  of  the  peace  an  important  officer?     What 

kind  of  cases  does  he  try? 

How  does  your  county  safeguard  the  health  of  its  citizens? 
How  are  your  officials  paid — by  fees  or  salaries? 
How  are  roads  built  and  repaired  in  your  county?    Does  the 

county  do  this  important  work  or  is  it  left  to  the  districts? 

2.  Make  a  visit  to  the  county  seat  and  report  to  the  class  on  the  uses 
to  which  the  various  buildings  are  put. 

3.  Mention  some  state  laws  that  must  be  obeyed  in  your  county,  also 
a  law  made  by  the  county  itself. 

4.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  duties  of  county  commissioners. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
STATE  GOVERNMENT 

Problems^  To  learn  (1)  the  activities  of  the  various 
branches  of  the  state  government;  and  (2)  the  principles  of 
the  political  parties. 

States  and  Their  Constitutions. — When  you  hear 
people  talk  of  the  governor,  the  legislature,  and  the 
courts,  you  think  of  the  state,  for  these  things  belong 
to  the  state  government.  You  think  of  Tennessee, 
Massachusetts,  Indiana,  and  other  states.  How  did 
the  states  come  into  being?  The  original  states  were 
colonies  of  England  and  were  thirteen  in  number.  Each 
colony  had  its  governor,  its  legislature,  and  its.  courts. 
When  the  American  colonies  revolted  from  England, 
they  had  to  form  new  governments  and  to  define  their 
exact  powers.  Such  plans  of  government  are  called 
constitutions.  As  each  new  state  has  been  formed,  it, 
too,  has  adopted  a  constitution.  There  are  forty-eight 
states  in  the  Union,  and  therefore  forty-eight  different 
constitutions.  All  of  the  state  constitutions,  however, 
agree  in  one  thing — they  contain  nothing  contrary  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  is  the 
supreme  law  of  the  land.  While  the  state  constitu- 
tions differ  much  in  details,  they  are  alike  in  the  great 
principles  of  government.  All  of  them  secure  to  the 
people  certain  rights  that  have  come  down  from  fore- 
going generations. 

How  Constitutions  Are  Made  and  Changed. — A 
163 


state  constitution  is  made  by  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion composed  of  delegates  elected  by  the  counties  and 
cities.  They  discuss  each  clause  of  the  proposed  con- 
stitution day  by  day  for  weeks  or  months  and  decide 
what  shall  be  accepted.  Thus  a  constitution  grows, 
little  by  little,  from  a  few  principles  until  it  covers  all 
the  subjects  that  lie  within  the  power  of  the  state. 
When  the  convention  has  framed  the  constitution,  it  is 
usually,  but  not  always,  offered  to  the  people  for  adop- 
tion or  rejection.  The  constitution  may  be  changed  by 
amendments.  In  most  states  an  amendment  is  first 
accepted  by  the  legislature,  and  is  then  voted  on  by  the 
people  at  the  following  regular  election.  In  a  few  states 
the  people  themselves,  by  a  system  called  the  initiative 
•and  referendum,  change  the  constitution  without  action 
by  the  legislature.  For  instance,  in  Oregon,  if  eight 
per  cent  of  the  voters  of  the  state  sign  a  petition  asking 
for  a  certain  amendment,  the  latter  is  submitted  to  the 
vote  of  the  people,  and,  if  approved  by  a  majority  at 
the  election,  it  becomes  law  without  further  measures. 
The  initiative  and  referendum  are  also  used  in  the  case 
of  laws  passed  by  the  legislature.  By  means  of  them, 
the  people  have  a  direct  part  in  lawmaking.  The  state 
government,  like  that  of  the  city,  has  executive,  legis- 
lative, and  judicial  branches. 

The  Governor. — The  highest  officer  of  the  state  is 
the  governor,  the  chief  executive.  He  is  elected  for  a 
term  of  two  or  four  years,  according  to  the  state.  In 
Virginia  the  term  is  four  years;  in  South  Carolina 
it  is  two  years.  His  powers  are  much  the  same  in  all 
states.  The  governor's  most  important  duties  are  as 
follows : 

164 


1.  To  send  a  message  to  the  legislature  on  its  meet- 
ing, recommending  the  passage  of  certain  laws.    In  some 
states  the  governor  draws  up  a  budget  outlining  the 
expenses  of  the  state  government  according  to  his  recom- 
mendations.    This  budget  shows  the  people  about  how 
much  the  government  should  cost  and  how  the  money 
should  be  spent. 

2.  To  appoint  many  officials,  including  the  heads  of 
a  number  of  departments.    In  some  states  the  adjutant- 
general,  the  head  of  the  department  of  fisheries,  and 
many  other  officials  are  appointed  by  the  governor.    In 
some  states  the  governor  appoints  the  judges  of  the 
higher  courts,  or  some  of  them.    However,  the  governor 
has  power  of  removal  in  only  a  few  cases. 

3.  To  veto  bills  passed  by  the  legislature  if  they 
meet  with  his  disapproval,     When  a  bill  is  vetoed  by 
the  governor,  it  is  sent  back  to  the  legislature,  and  may 
be  passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote. 

•4.  To  call  out  the  state  militia  when  local  officials 
cannot  protect  life  and  property. 

5.  To  inspect  the  different  state  institutions  to  see 
that  they  are  properly  managed. 

6.  To  pardon  persons  convicted  of  crime.    In  some 
states  this  power  has  been  taken  away  from  the  governor 
and  given  to  a  board  of  pardons. 

Other  State  Officers. — Other  important  state  officers 
are:  the  lieutenant-governor,  who  presides  over  the 
state  senate  and  takes  the  governor's  place  when  he  is 
sick  or  absent  from  the  state,  and  succeeds  him  in  case 
he  dies  before  the  end  of  his  term.  The  secretary  of 
state,  who  has  certain  legal  functions  to  perform.  The 
treasurer,  who  cares  for  the  state's  money,  and  pays  it 

165 


out  on  the  auditor's  demand.  The  auditor — sometimes 
there  are  a  first  and  second  auditor — who  sees  to  the 
collection  of  the  state's  money.  The  attorney-general, 
who  has  charge  of  suits  brought  by  the  state  and  defends 
the  state  against  suits.  The  adjutant-general,  who  con- 
trols the  state  militia.  The  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  or  commissioner  of  education,  who  directs 
the  public  school  system.  The  highway  commissioner, 
who  has  control  of  the  state's  part  in  road  building.  The 
insurance  commissioner,  who  examines  the  insurance 
companies  doing  business  in  the  state.  The  commis- 
sioner of  charities  and  correction,  who  inspects  the 
state  prisons  and  charitable  institutions.  In  some  states 
there  are  numerous  other  officers. 

State  Departments. — The  work  of  the  state  is  car- 
ried on  by  departments  presided  over  by  the  principal 
state  officers.  The  number  of  departments  varies 
greatly  in  different  states,  being  very  large  in  New  York 
and  small  in  Nevada. 

Department  of  Education. — This  department  dis- 
tributes state  school  funds  to  the  cities  and  counties; 
issues  teachers'  certificates;  lays  down  general  rules  for 
the  running  of  the  schools;  looks  after  the  state  normal 
schools;  examines  the  workings  of  the  public  schools; 
makes  recommendations  for  the  improvement  of  edu- 
cation; assists  in  building  schools;  selects  textbooks  in 
some  states,  and  performs  many  other  functions. 

Highway  Department. — A  few  years  ago  each  county 
had  to  build  its  own  roads  without  help  from  the  state. 
At  the  present  time  the  state  aids  the  communities  to 
better  the  roads  by  maintaining  state  highways  and  by 
giving  money  to  counties  for  the  building  of  improved 

166 


roads.  Some  of  the  states,  particularly  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  have  made  large  bond  issues  for  road 
improvement.  The  highway  department  employs 
trained  engineers  who  plan  new  roads  and  grade  and 
straighten  old  roads  that  are  being  improved.  The 
road-building  policy  of  each  state  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
highway  commission,  which  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the 


Photograph  by  A.  M.  Black,  Tazewell,  Va. 

A  GOOD  ROAD 

most  important  departments  of  government.  The 
United  States  helps  the  states  to  build  roads,  giving  an 
amount  of  money  in  proportion  to  the  amount  spent  by 
each  state.  The  tendency  is  for  the  states  to  take 
almost  entire  charge  of  road  building,  as  local  road 
making  is  less  efficient. 

Department  of  Health. — This  department  has  done 

167 


a  splendid  work  in  every  state.  Not  so  many  years  ago 
each  locality  had  to  care  for  its  own  health  conditions, 
with  the  result  that  there  were  terrible  epidemics  of 
typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases.  Nowadays  inspectors 
are  sent  out  by  the  department  of  health  as  soon  as 
smallpox,  typhoid,  diphtheria,  hookworm,  and  other 
contagious  and  infectious  diseases  become  serious  in  any 
part  of  the  state.  Efforts  are  also  made  to  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  these  diseases  by  sending  warnings  and 
instructions  through  the  mails.  Examinations  of  sus- 
pected water,  and  other  investigations,  are  made  free 
of  charge  by  the  scientists  of  the  health  department, 
who  are  always  at  the  service  of  the  public.  The  great 
improvement  in  the  public  health  in  recent  years  is 
largely  due  to  the  health  departments. 

Department  of  Agriculture. — In  some  states  the 
department  of  agriculture  is  of  great  importance;  in 
others  it  is  less  so.  In  agricultural  regions  it  saves  the 
farmers  millions  of  dollars  annually  by  teaching  them 
the  best  ways  of  cultivating,  harvesting,  and  marketing 
crops.  In  many  of  the  states  there  are  county  agri- 
cultural demonstrators,  whose  business  it  is  to  give 
lessons  in  farming;  and  sometimes  agents  of  the  agri- 
cultural department  are  sent  through  the  state  to 
lecture  on  new  methods  of  cultivation  and  to  make 
known  to  farmers  the  discoveries  of  science  in  agri- 
culture. In  some  states  the  department  of  agriculture 
aids  the  farmer  in  fighting  pests,  such  as  scales  on  fruit 
trees  and  the  boll  weevil  on  cotton. 

The  General  Assembly  or  Legislature. — The  law- 
making  body  of  the  state  meets  in  the  capitol  -building 
in  the  state  capital  at  stated  periods,  every  year  or 

168 


every  two  years.  The  lower  house  is  generally  called 
the  house  of  delegates  or  representatives;  the  upper 
house  is  always  called  the  senate.  The  former  has  a 
larger  representation  than  the  senate,  for  the  districts 
are  much  smaller:  most  counties  and  cities  have  at 
least  one  representative  in  the  house  of  delegates.  A 
number  of  counties  usually  go  to  make  up  a  senatorial 
district,  though  sometimes,  as  in  South  Carolina,  a 
single  county  composes  a  district.  The  first  work  of 
the  house  of  delegates  is  to  elect  a  speaker  to  preside 
over  the  body.  It  also  elects  clerks  and  sergeants-at- 
arms,  as  does  the  senate.  The  speaker  appoints  the 
various  committees,  and  the  body  settles  down  to  work. 
The  senate  does  not  elect  its  presiding  officer,  because 
the  constitution  names  the  lieutenant-governor  for  this 
position.  This  officer  appoints  the  senate  committees. 
Most  of  the  work  of  legislative  bodies  is  done  through 
committees;  the  debates  on  the  floor  of  the  house  are 
no  longer  of  as  much  importance  as  formerly.  Each 
member  of  a  legislative  body  is  a  member  of  several 
committees.  Men  who  have  been  long  in  the  body  and 
have  gained  influence  are  members  of  the  principal  com- 
mittees; new  members  are  assigned  to  less  vital  com- 
mittees. The  finance,  or  ways  and  means,  committee 
is  the  most  important  committee  of  a  legislative  body, 
and  the  chairman  of  it  stands  next  in  power  to  the  pre- 
siding officer.  The  principal  committees  usually  are: 
finance;  corporation;  education;  highways;  agri- 
culture; mining;  labor  and  commerce. 

How  a  Law  is  Made.— The  following  are  the  steps 
by  which  a  bill  becomes  an  act,  or  law : 

1.  A  bill  may  be  introduced  in  either  house,  except 

169 


appropriation  bills,  which  must  be  first  introduced  in 
the  house  of  delegates. 

2.  It  must  be  in  written  form  when  presented  by 
the  member  introducing  it.    It  must  also  have  a  title, 
which  is  all  that  is  required  to  be  read  by  the  clerk  at 
the  first  reading. 

3.  The  bill  is  then  referred  to  the  committee  which 
considers  such  matters  as  it  relates  to.    If  favored  by 
the  committee,  it  is  printed  and  sent  back  to  the  house 
for  its  second  reading.     Many  bills,  however,  "die  in 
committee,"  that  is,  are  never  sent  back  to  the  main 
body. 

4.  The  next  step  is  the  argument  on  the  merits  of 
the  bill,  pro  and  con,  on  the  floor  of  the  house.     The 
bill  may  be,  and  usually  is,  amended — that  is,  changed. 
Sometimes  it  is  so  amended  that  it  bears  little  likeness 
to  its  original  form.    After  the  amendments  have  been 
voted  on,  and  either  accepted  or  rejected,  a  vote  is  taken 
as  to  whether  or  not  the  bill  shall  pass  on  to  the  third 
reading.    The  roll  of  the  body  is  called  on  this  vote,  as 
on  most  votes. 

5.  If  the  bill  passes  to  its  third  reading  it  is  on  the 
way  to  final  passage.    It  is  read  and  a  vote  is  taken  as 
to  whether  or  not  it  shall  pass.    Most  bills  that  get  so 
far  as  the  third  reading  pass. 

6.  If  passed  by  the  house  in  which  it  originated,  the 
bill  must  be  sent  to  the  other  house,  where  it  goes 
through  the  same  course.     Usually  the  other  house 
adds  new  amendments  before  it  accepts  the  bill.    The 
newly  amended  bill  is  then  sent  back  to  the  house 
where  it  originated.     If  that  body  accepts  it,  it  be- 
comes law  unless  the  governor    vetoes    it.       But  if 

170 


the  first  house  declines  to  accept  the  amendments 
made  by  the  second  house,  it  fails  to  pass  the  bill. 
Then  conference  committees  are  appointed  by  the  two 
houses  to  meet  and  see  if  an  agreement  can  be 
reached.  A  compromise  is  usually  the  result.  The  com- 
promise bill  is  then  voted  on  by  the  two  houses,  and,  if 
accepted,  it  becomes  an  act,  provided  the  governor  does 
not  veto  it.  If  he  does  veto  it,  it  goes  back  to  the 
houses,  which  may  or  may  not  pass  it  over  his  veto. 
You  will  see  from  this  that  making  a  law  is  a  long  and 
difficult  process.  It  should  be  so:  otherwise  many  new 
laws  would  be  made  at  every  session  of  a  legislature. 
State  Courts. — The  judicial  branch — the  courts — in- 
terprets and  enforces  the  laws.  The  number  and  names 
of  courts  differ  greatly  in  different  states.  The  frame- 
work of  the  state  court  system  is  as  follows : 

1.  Justices'  courts  in  counties  and  police  courts  in  cities 
for  trial  of  small  offenses. 

2.  County  courts.     (In  some  states.) 

3.  City  courts.     (Several  kinds  in  large  cities.) 

4.  Circuit,  or  district  courts,  for  the  trial  of  most  civil 
cases  and  most  crimes. 

5.  Supreme   court,    or   court   of   appeals,    to   try   cases 
appealed  from  the  circuit  and  city  courts. 

6.  In  New  York,  and  one  or  two  other  states,  a  court  of 
appeals,  to  hear  cases  appealed  from  the  supreme  court. 

In  addition  to  these  ordinary  courts,  there  are 
special  courts  outside  the  regular  judicial  system.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  corporation  commission. 
This  court  has  control  of  railroad,  street  railway,  steam- 
boat and  other  transportation  corporations;  of  tele- 
graph and  telephone  companies;  of  public  and  private 
banks  (except  national  and  Federal  Reserve  banks) ;  of 

171 


trust  and  loan  companies.  It  enforces  the  laws  in 
regard  to  such  corporations,  or  companies,  and  grants 
charters  of  incorporation  to  various  business  enter- 
prises. It  has  the  power  to  make  railroad,  steamboat, 
and  other  public  service  rates,  and  it  assesses  the  taxes  to 
be  paid  by  railways  and  other  transportation  companies. 

The  People  and  the  State. — You  will  see  from  this 
chapter  that  the  government  of  the  state  is  a  large  and 
important  undertaking.  We  speak  of  the  people's  gov- 
erning themselves,  but  so  far  we  have  only  heard  of 
state  departments,  legislature,  and  courts.  What  have 
the  people  to  do  with  these  agencies  of  government? 
The  answer  is  that  the  people  elect  the  governor  and 
most  of  the  other  important  state  officers;  the  legis- 
lature; and,  in  some  cases,  the  judges.  Every  voter 
therefore  has  a  voice  in  the  government  of  the  state. 
When  you  grow  up  you  will  have  the  right  to  vote — 
that  is,  to  say  who  shall  hold  the  important  positions 
in  the  state  government. 

Qualifications  of  a  Voter. — All  citizens,  male  or 
female,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  have  the  right  to  vote 
unless  forbidden  for  special  reasons,  or  because  they 
have  not  fully  complied  with  the  law  regulating  voting. 
The  voter  must: 

1.  Be  a  resident  of  the  state — that  is,  he  must  have 
lived  in  the  state  for  a  certain  time.    Residents  who  are 
not  citizens  cannot  vote. 

2.  Be  registered  in  the  precinct,  or  voting  district, 
where  he  lives.    And  he  must  have  lived  in  the  district 
for  a  certain  time. 

3.  In  some  states  pay  a  poll  tax,  and  pay  it  a  certain 
time  in  advance  of  the  election. 

172 


4.  In  some  states  be  able  to  read  and  write  the 
English  language.  In  other  states  he  must  be  able  to 
explain  a  clause  in  the  state  constitution  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  registrars.  There  are  also  other  educa- 
tional qualifications. 

In  all  states  certain  persons,  such  as  lunatics  and 
men  convicted  of  crime,  were  long  without  the  right  to 
vote,  or  the  hope  of  having  the  right  restored.  There  is 
a  growing  tendency,  however,  to  give  criminals  the 
right  to  vote  after  they  leave  prison. 

Political  Parties. — Most  voters  belong  to  a  polit- 
ical party.  Local  elections  frequently  lie  not  between 
parties  but  between  individuals,  but  state  elections  are 
always  between  parties.  In  some  states,  however,  as 
in  the  South,  a  single  party  is  so  strong  as  to  have  little 
opposition.  In  these  states  the  regular  elections  are 
usually  a  form,  and  the  real  elections  are  what  are 
called  primaries,  in  which  candidates  offer  themselves 
for  nomination  by  a  party.  The  person  nominated  is 
really  elected.  In  other  states,  where  there  are  two 
strong  parties,  primaries  are  held  for  both  parties,  or 
nominating  conventions,  and  then  the  nominees  of  the 
parties  are  voted  for  in  the  regular  election,  which  is 
the  main  election.  The  two  principal  parties  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Republican  and  the  Democratic. 
The  Republican  party  is  usually  in  control  of  the  federal 
government,  but  not  always.  President  Wilson  was  a 
Democrat,  and  at  various  times  the  Democratic  party 
has  been  in  control  of  one  or  both  houses  of  Congress. 
In  the  Southern  states,  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two,  the  Democratic  party  is  always  in  power.  In  the 
North  and  West,  the  state  governments  are  in  the  hands 

173 


of  one  and  then  the  other  of  the  parties.  Pennsylvania 
is  one  of  the  few  states  that  are  nearly  always  in  the 
hands  of  the  Republicans.  Some  years  ago  there  was  a 
third  party,  the  Populist,  which  controlled  a  number  of 
Western  states  for  a  time.  Other  parties  in  the  country 
are  the  Socialist  and  Farmer-Labor  parties,  which  differ 
greatly  from  the  two  main  parties.  These  latter  parties 
favor  the  ownership  of  railroads  and  other  great  indus- 
tries by  the  government. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  courts  of  your  state  and  find  out 
whether  the  judges  are  appointed  or  elected. 

2.  Write  to  the  state  comptroller  or  auditor  and  request  him  to  send 
you  a  report  showing  how  much  money  the  state  spent  last  year. 

3.  Write  to  the  state  department  of  education  for  a  report  showing 
how  much  money  is  spent  annually  on  public  education. 

4.  Invite  your  representative  in  the  legislature  to  make  a  talk  before 
your  classroom  club  on  "How  Laws  are  Made." 

5.  Answer  these  questions: 

How  many  judges  compose  the  supreme  court  of  your  state? 
How  are  they  chosen? 

If  the  governor  of  your  state  should  die,  who  would  take  his 
place? 

How  many  members  has  the  lower  body  of  your  state  legisla- 
ture? The  upper  body? 

How  often  does  your  legislature  meet? 

What  are  the  two  bodies  of  your  legislature  called? 

What  is  the  basis  of  representation  in  each  body? 

What  are  the  committees  for  each  body? 

How  is  the  state  highway  commissioner  chosen  in  your  state? 
Write  to  this  official  for  the  report  showing  the  cost  and 
location  of  state  highways. 

WThat  are  the  qualifications  for  a  voter  in  your  state? 

6.  Put  on  the  blackboard  the  answers  to  the  following  questions:  What 
are  your  state  offices  and  who  are  the  present  officers? 

174 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
SOME  THINGS  THE  NATION  DOES  FOR  US 

Problem:  To  discover  ways  in  which  the  nation  helps 
the  people  of  a  community. 

We  have  seen  in  our  previous  studies  that  the  county, 
city,  and  state  exercise  authority  over  the  people  and 
carry  on  many  activities  for  their  benefit.  There  are 
certain  things,  however,  that  only  the  national  govern- 
ment has  the  power  to  do.  In  Chapter  XIII  we  con- 
sidered two  of  these  activities — money-making  and  the 
post  office.  Now  we  shall  study  some  additional  things 
that  are  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  United  States 
government. 

Control  of  Immigration. — The  national  government 
has  complete  control  of  immigration  into  the  United 
States.  Thousands  of  foreigners  come  to  our  shores  in 
the  great  steamships  that  leave  the  seaports  of 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  Most  of  these  immigrants 
land  in  New  York  harbor.  There  they  have  to  go 
through  a  thorough  examination  before  they  are 
admitted  to  the  United  States;  if  the  quota  of  immi- 
grants from  a  country  has  already  been  completed  for 
the  year,  other  newcomers  from  that  country  are  sent 
back  without  examination.  The  states  have  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  immigration. 

Control  of  Fighting  Forces. — The  United  States 
government  declares  war  and  makes  peace:  the  states 
have  no  voice  in  this  matter.  The  regular  army  and 

175 


the  navy  are  entirely  in  the  control  of  the  federal 
government;  but  the  states  maintain  militia.  This 
militia  is  nearly  always  an  exclusively  land  force;  only 
a  few  states  have  a  naval  militia.  The  militia  is  under 
the  states  in  time  of  peace  but  comes  under  the  federal 
government  in  war.  The  United  States,  in  war,  also 
drafts  citizens,  whether  they  wish  to  fight  or  not,  and 
calls  for  volunteers.  In  war  the  army  consists  of  all 
males,  of  certain  ages,  able  to  bear  arms  and  not 
excused  from  military  duty  because  of  having  families 
to  support.  In  peace,  the  army  is  small.  Most  of  the 
troops  are  stationed  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Alaska, 
and  points  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  marines  are  largely  employed  in  keeping 
order  in  the  republic  of  Haiti,  which  is  more  or  less 
under  the  control  of  the  United  States. 

The  Army  and  Navy. — The  regular  army  consists  of 
men  who  join  the  service  for  a  term  of  years.  Recruits 
must  undergo  a  rigid  physical  examination,  for  the 
army  does  not  wish  weaklings  and  men  with  defects. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  navy.  It  is  usually  a  difficult 
matter  to  secure  enough  soldiers  for  the  army  and 
sailors  for  the  navy,  for,  though  there  are  many  advan- 
tages in  being  in  the  army  and  navy,  the  pay  is  small 
and  the  opportunity  of  advancement  not  great.  A 
number  of  soldiers  have  become  officers  in  the  army 
by  studying  in  the  army  schools  and  passing  the 
examinations  for  commissions;  this  is  not  the  case  in 
the  navy.  Most  of  the  army  officers  are  graduates  of 
the  United  States  Military  Academy,  naval  officers  of 
the  Naval  Academy.  The  navy  must  be  kept  strong, 
even  in  peace  time.  The  tendency  now,  following  the 

177 


Armament  Conference  of  1921-22,  is  to  reduce  navies 
in  all  the  countries  of  the  world.  The  American 
navy  is  divided  into  two  main  fleets — the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific.  The  Panama  Canal  was  built  partly 
to  enable  these  two  fleets  to  unite  quickly  in  time 
of  war. 

The  Military  and  Naval  Academies. — The  main- 
tenance of  the  Military  Academy,  at  West  Point,  New 
York,  and  of  the  Naval,  Academy,  at  Annapolis, 
Maryland,  is  one  of  the  federal  government's  most 
important  duties  in  connection  with  the  army  and 
navy.  Youths  seventeen  years  old  may  enter  West 
Point  provided  they  can  secure  an  appointment  from  a 
Congressman  and  take  the  entrance  examinations  or 
make  the  highest  standing  in  a  competitive  exami- 
nation. General  Pershing  won  an  appointment  to  West 
Point  over  another  boy  by  a  single  question  in  grammar. 
His  great  career  is  the  result  of  his  making  the  most  of 
his  high  school  opportunities  and  of  knowing  just  a 
little  more  than  another  boy.  On  such  'small  things 
men's  lives  often  turn.  The  cadets  at  the  Naval 
Academy  are  appointed  in  the  same  way.  Both 
military  and  naval  cadets  are  paid  enough  to  cover  all 
their  expenses  while  at  school  and  are  appointed  to 
places  in  the  army  and  navy  on  graduating. 

Navigation. — The  United  States  government  con- 
trols navigation  along  the  seacoasts  and  of  the  inland 
rivers  of  the  country.  Captains  of  ships  and  pilots 
must  get  federal  licenses  before  they  can  do  their  work. 
There  are  rigid  rules,  laid  down  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment for  ships,  such  as  carrying  a  certain  number  of 
lifeboats  and  lifebuoys  for  the  safety  of  passengers  and 

178 


doing  certain  things  for  the  welfare  of  the  crew.  Is 
there  a  navigable  river  in  your  state?  If  so,  the  United 
States  government  controls  the  vessels  that  ply  on  it. 
The  government  spends  many  millions  of  dollars  yearly 
in  deepening  the  channel  of  rivers  by  dredging,  and 
in  maintaining  on  the  seacoast  lighthouses  and  life- 
saving  stations  for  the  rescue  of  shipwrecked  people. 
During  the  World  War  the  federal  government  built 


A  COAST  GUARD  STATION 

hundreds  of  ships  to  carry  food  and  other  products 
from  this  country  to  Europe.  In  peace  time,  however, 
the  United  States  has  few  merchant  ships  except  those 
that  sail  from  port  to  port  along  the  coast.  Nearly 
all  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  is  carried  in 
European  and  Japanese  vessels. 

Customs. — One  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the 
United  States  government  is  to  regulate  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  country,  as  well  as  commerce  between  the 

179 


states.  It  may  surprise  you  to  learn  that  foreign  goods 
may  not  be  brought  into  this  country  free.  If  goods 
are  shipped  to  the  United  States  from  England  or  some 
other  foreign  land,  they  are  examined  by  officials  of 
the  federal  government  at  the  port  where  they  are 
unloaded.  The  law  requires  that  certain  payments, 
called  duties  or  tariff,  be  made  on  these  foreign  goods. 
This  money  goes  into  the  United  States  treasury.  The 
object  of  the  tariff  is  to  obtain  money  for  the 
government  and,  also,  to  protect  American  manu- 
factures by  putting  a  burden  on  foreign  manu- 
factures. Not  having  to  pay  the  tariff,  American 
manufacturers  need  not  produce  goods  at  so  low 
a  cost  as  Europeans.  American  goods  often  cost 
more  to  make  than  foreign  products,  but  because  of 
the  tariff  they  are  sold  as  cheaply  in  our  stores  as 
European  manufactures. 

Copyrights  and  Patents. — Another  power  vested 
solely  in  our  national  government  is  that  of  granting 
copyrights  to  persons  who  write  books,  plays,  and  music, 
and  patents  to  those  who  invent  machines  and  appli- 
ances. If  an  author  writes  a  book  he  is  given  the 
exclusive  right,  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  to  publish 
.it,  and  anyone  else  printing  the  book  is  liable  to  punish- 
ment. The  same  thing  is  true  of  patents.  Some  great 
fortunes  have  been  made  from  patents,  notably  that  of 
Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  inventor  of  the  telephone, 
and  that  of  Thomas  Edison,  the  inventor  of  the  electric 
light,  the  phonograph,  and  many  other  marvels.  The 
Patent  Office  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  buildings  in 
Washington.  You  must  be  sure  to  visit  it  when  next 
you  go  to  the  national  capital.  Tiny  models  of  thou- 

180 


sands  of  machines  are  kept  there,  and  it  is  fascinating  to 
examine  them. 

The  Weather  Bureau. — You  frequently  read  the 
weather  forecasts  in  the  local  newspaper,  especially 
when  you  are  planning  to  go  somewhere.  You  have 
learned  to  know  that  if  the  paper  says  "Fair  and 
warmer  tomorrow,"  it  is  likely  to  be  so,  and  that  if  the 
paper  'says  "Cloudy,  with  showers,"  the  day  will 
probably  not  be  a  good  one.  These  forecasts  are  read 
by  thousands  of  people  for  business  reasons.  The 
farmers  wish  to  learn  what  sort  of  weather  to  expect, 
so  that  they  will  know  what  to  do  with  their  hay  and 
other  crops ;  the  ship  captain  often  stays  in  port  when 
the  weather  forecasts  tell  of  a  storm  on  the  coast.  To 
many  other  people  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to 
know  what  sort  of  weather  the  day  will  bring  forth. 
It  is  the  business,  exclusively,  of  the  federal  government 
to  study  the  weather.  Trained  men  at  two  hundred 
regular  stations  throughout  the  country  observe  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  and  send  in  their  reports 
to  Washington,  from  which  place  the  forecasts  are 
dispatched  by  telegraph. 

Railroads. — The  federal  government  has  control  of 
the  railroad  rates  on  railroads  that  run  through  two  or 
more  states:  railroads  that  are  confined  to  a  single 
state  are  under  the  control  of  that  state,  as  well  as  the 
rates  for  points  within  the  state.  In  other  words,  if 
goods  are  shipped  from  one  state  to  another,  the 
freight  rate  paid  on  those  goods  is  determined  by  the 
United  States  government.  If  goods  are  shipped  from 
one  city  in  a  state  to  another  city  in  the  same  state, 
the  freight  rate  is  fixed  by  the  state  corporation  com- 

181 


mission.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  passenger  fares. 
The  body  that  makes  the  rates  between  states  and  has 
control  of  the  railways  generally  is  known  as  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission.  This  board  came  into 
existence  in  1887,  because  of  complaints  that  the 
railroads  were  not  acting  fairly,  and  it  has  gradually 
been  given  more  power  by  Congress  until  now  it  exer- 
cises a  large  measure  of  authority  over  the  railways. 
During  the  World  War  the  federal  government  took 
over  nearly  all  the  railway  lines  in  the  country  and 
conducted  them,  but  after  the  war  the  roads  were  given 
back  to  their  owners. 

Other  Functions  of  the  Government. — The  United 
States  government  assists  the  states  in  many  things 
that  are  done  by  each  state  for  itself.  Thus  the  health 
work  of  the  United  States  government  is  very  im- 
portant. The  series  of  experiments  conducted  by 
officials  of  the  government  determined  that  yellow  fever 
is  conveyed  by  mosquitoes  and  bubonic  plague  by  rats. 
The  United  States  health  authorities  are  in  charge  in 
every  port  of  the  United  States.  They  take  care  that 
no  persons  suffering  from  diseases  dangerous  to  other 
people  are  allowed  to  land  in  the  country;  and  in  case 
of  a  threatened  epidemic  they  may  close  a  port  entirely 
for  a  time.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  also  made  many  valuable  discoveries. 
Indeed,  the  state  departments  of  agriculture  exist 
partly  for  the  purpose  of  making  known  to  the  farmers 
of  the  individual  states  the  discoveries  of  the  United 
States  government.  The  federal  government  owns 
large  forest  preserves  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
on  which  it  seeks  to  preserve  and  improve  the  trees, 

182 


so  that  the  country's  supply  of  timber  will  not  be  soon 
exhausted.  In  many  other  ways  besides  these  the 
federal  government  is  at  work  for  our  welfare. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  enlistment  in  the 
United  States  army  or  navy. 

2.  Appoint  a  classmate  to  discuss  the  importance  of  the  airplane  as  a 
branch  of  the  military  service. 

3.  Give  some  reasons  why  the  national  government  controls  commerce 
on  such  inland  waterways  as  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  rather 
than  the  different  states  which  border  on  these  waterways. 

4.  Give  reasons  why  an  inventor  should  be  allowed  a  patent. 

5.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  Fordney-McCumber  tariff  act. 

6.  Tell  why  tariff  bills  are  very  hotly  debated  in  Congress. 

7.  Debate  this  question:    Resolved,  That  the  United  States  should 
keep  up  its  navy  to  the  full  quota  allowed  by  the  Armament  Agreement. 


183 


PART  THREE 
CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE  JUNIOR  CITIZENS  CLUB  REORGANIZED 
Problem:   To  reorganize  your  Junior  Citizens  Club. 

Reorganizing  Your  Club. — This  should  be  the  best 
year  of  the  Junior  Citizens  Club.    You  are  older  and 


Courtesy  o£  Miss  Emilie  Yunker 

A  SCHOOL  GARDEN 


can  therefore  make  the  meetings  more  interesting  and 
form  better  plans  for  improving  your  school  and  com- 
munity. Discuss  the  following  report  of  the  reor- 

184 


ganization  of  a  club  like  yours  and  then  decide  what 
shall  be  your  plan  of  work  for  the  year: 

REORGANIZATION  OF  THE  Civics  CLUB 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Civics  Club  in  Fair- 
mount  School  a  committee  on  reorganization  was 
appointed.  The  next  day  it  made  the  following  report: 

The  officers  are  to  be  as  heretofore : 

President. 
Vice  President. 
Secretary. 
Treasurer. 

We  suggest  the  following  departments: 

Department  of  Health. 

Head  of  department  and  helpers. 

Department  of  Public  Works. 
Head  and  helpers. 

Department  of  Thrift  and  Banking. 
Head  and  helpers. 

Library  Department. 
Head  and  helpers. 

News  Department. 

Head  and  helpers. 

Entertainment  ^Department. 
Head  and  helpers. 

We  recommend  that  the  duties  of  the  departments 
be  as  follows: 

Department  of  Health.— The  "head  doctor"  and  his 
assistants  look  at  and  keep  records  of  finger  nails;  inspect 
shoes;  ask  about  brushing  teeth;  keep  the  room  at  the 

185 


right  temperature;  display  literature  on  health;  and  do 
various  other  things  which  improve  the  health  of  the  pupils. 

Department  of  Public  Works. — This  department  keeps 
the  room  neat.  It  strives  for  an  "A"  rating  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  desks.  It  also  looks  after  blackboards,  vases  of 
flowers,  and  the  waste  paper  basket. 

Thrift  Department. — For  this  department  the  head 
should  be  a  fine  banker,  who  will  help  to  keep  the  banking 
records  and  percentages,  who  will  count  the  money  and 
supply  the  literature  on  thrift. 

Library  Department. — The  librarians  should  work  out 
systems  for  keeping  records. 

News  Department. — Three  pupils  should  look  after  this 
department.  They  should  gather  up  materials  of  interest, 
visit  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  banks,  and  bring 
literature  which  describes  the  city. 

The  Entertainment  Department. — This  committee  should 
plan  and  present  several  entertainments  during  the  year, 
besides  conducting  the  morning  exercises. 

The  report  of  the  reorganization  committee  was 
unanimously  adopted.  After  the  election  of  officers, 
the  president  appointed  the  heads  of  the  departments 
and  their  helpers. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Reorganize  your  club. 

2.  Appoint  standing  committees. 

3.  Write  new  songs,  new  cheers,  ami  a  class  slogan. 


180 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

CHOOSING  A  VOCATION 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  various  vocations  and  their 
contributions  to  the  world;  and  (2)  to  consider  your  life 
vocation  and  how  to  prepare  for  it. 

Wisdom  of  Early  Choice. — When  should  you  choose 
your  vocation  or  life  work?  Many  young  people  do  not 
think  seriously  about  this  question  until  they  are  well  on 
into  a  high  school  course  and  some  have  no  definite 
plans  when  they  enter  college;  but  it  is  wise  to  begin 
early  in  life  to  think  about  this  most  important  ques- 
tion. If  you  are  going  to  high  school,  as  probably  you 
are,  you  should  have  at  least  a  general  idea  of  what 
you  wish  to  do  in  life.  If  you  expect  to  be  a  farmer,  you 
will  take  up  the  study  of  agriculture;  if  you  are  plan- 
ning to  go  to  college,  you  will  study  certain  foreign 
languages;  if  you  expect  to  enter  the  commercial  field, 
there  are  studies  that  will  help  to  equip  you  for  this 
work. 

Every  Girl  Should  Work. — In  these  times  girls  as 
well  as  boys  should  think  about  the  vocations  they 
expect  to  follow,  for  there  is  no  place  in  the  world  now 
for  idlers.  There  are  about  ten  million  women  workers 
in  the  United  States.  In  1910  women  were  found  in 
three  hundred  and  eighty -five  of  the  four  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  occupations  listed  by  the  Census  Bureau. 
The  good  citizen,  whether  man  or  woman,  will  do  some 
useful  work  in  the  world. 

187 


Beware  of  "Blind  Alley"  Jobs. — Many  young  people 
accept  odd  jobs  in  vacation  for  the  purpose  of  earning 
money  while  out  of  school.  There  is  no  objection  to 
this;  but  when  you  complete  your  education  be  sure  to 
choose  a  position  of  some  promise  rather  than  a  "blind 
alley"  job — that  is,  a  job  which  has  no  future — such, 
for  instance,  as  an  elevator  operator. 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

A  RAILROAD  ENGINEER 

Main  Occupations: — Below  is  a  list  of  the  main 
occupations  to  be  followed: 

Farming  Manufacturing 

Farmer.  Skilled  mechanic. 

Trucker.  Office  clerk. 

Dairyman.  Mechanical  engineer. 

Fruit  grower.  Superintendent  of  mills. 

188 


Professions 

Teacher. 

Physician. 

Druggist. 

Dentist. 

Lawyer. 

Engineer. 

Minister. 

Journalist. 

Transportation  and 

Communication 

Railroad  employee. 
Steamship  employee. 
Automobile  mechanic. 
Automobile  salesman. 
Telegraph  operator. 
Telephone  operator. 
Taxi  driver. 
Street  car  employee. 


Skilled  Trades 

Mason. 

Painter. 

Carpenter. 

Plasterer. 

Paper  hanger. 

Cement  worker. 

Locomotive  engineer. 

Structural  steel  worker. 


Commerce  and  Finance 

Salesman. 
Business  manager. 
Stenographer. 
Secretary. 
Bank  employee. 
Real  estate  dealer. 
Insurance  solicitor. 
Stock  broker. 


Teaching. — It  is  wise  to  make  a  careful  study  of  a 
vocation  if  you  are  thinking  seriously  of  choosing  it. 
Let  us  make  a  brief  study  of  three  occupations  that 
many  people  pursue.  First,  let  us  look  at  teaching,  a 
profession  that  is  followed  by  more  than  600,000  persons 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  the  leading  calling  for 
women,  at  least  half  a  million  of  whom  are  engaged  in 
the  work.  An  increasing  number  of  men  are  also 
entering  this  profession  as  high  school  teachers,  school 
superintendents,  and  college  professors. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages. — The  advantages 
of  teaching  are:  the  pleasant  surroundings;  the . high 
regard  in  which  teachers  are  held;  the  pleasure  that 
comes  from  contact  with  ambitious  and  studious  young 
people;  the  opportunity  for  study.  The  disadvantages 

189 


are:  the  low  salaries;  the  difficulty  in  securing  com- 
fortable living  quarters  in  some  places;  and  the  worry 
over  unruly  pupils.  The  preparation  for  teaching  con- 
sists of  graduation  from  a  four-year  high  school  and  at 
least  two  years  of  special  training.  If  you  wish  to 
achieve  the  greatest  success  as  a  teacher,  you  should 
take  a  full  college  course.  Why  not  teach?  You  can 
render  no  greater  service  to  the  world  than  by  engaging 
in  this  useful  profession. 

Medicine. — Another  occupation  to  which  your 
attention  is  called  is  that  of  medicine.  The  surgeon 
who  performs  difficult  operations,  the  army  doctor  who 
follows  the  battle  line  ministering  to  the  needs  of  the 
wounded,  the  country  physician  who  drives  through 
the  storm  to  save  a  life — all  are  true  servants  of 
humanity.  Do  you  wish  to  be  a  doctor?  If  so,  you 
must  like  to  study  and  must  graduate  from  college. 
No  profession  requires  a  longer  period  of  preparation.. 
After  graduating  from  college  you  must  take  a  four- 
year  course  at  a  medical  school,  usually  followed  by 
at  least  one  year  in  hospital  work. 

Stenography. — A  third  occupation  to  consider  is 
that  of  stenography.  The  capable  stenographer  has 
every  reason  to  be  proud  of  her  work:  if  she  takes  a 
genuine  interest  in  the  business  she  helps  greatly  to 
make  it  a  success.  The  work  is  usually  pleasant;  and 
efficient  stenographers  have  an  opportunity  for  ad- 
vancement to  the  position  of  secretary  to  the  president 
or  manager.  Do  you  expect  to  be  a  stenographer? 
If  so,  you  are  strongly  advised  to  take  a  full  high  school 
course.  There  are  thousands  of  stenographers  in  the 
country  who  will  always  fill  minor  positions  because 

190 


they  lack  the  education  essential  to  success  in  this 
calling. 

Farming. — The  most  useful  and  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  of  all  occupations  is  farming.  The  world 
looks  to  the  farmer  for  the  necessaries  of  life;  he  does 
vital  work.  Besides,  life  in  the  open  air  gives  health 
.and  strength  and  makes  the  sturdiest  men  and  women. 


PLOWING 

Business. — But  perhaps  you  are  thinking  of  going 
into  business.  If  so,  you  will  need  a  somewhat  different 
training.  A  four-year  high  school  course  is  strongly 
advisable,  for  a  trained  mind  and  a  good  knowledge  of 
mathematics  and  English  are  of  great  importance. 
After  high  school,  a  two  years'  course  in  a  business 
college  or  school  of  commerce  will  be  of  the  utmost 
benefit.  The  lad  who  completes  such  a  course  is  pre- 
pared to  rise  much  faster  than  the  boy  who  has  to  learn 

191 


business  from  the  bottom  after  he  goes  into  it.  When 
you  have  finished  your  education,  the  next  thing  to  do 
is  to  choose  the  branch  of  business  that  suits  you  best. 
This  is  a 'difficult  matter.  The  natural  tendency  is  to 
take  the  job  that  pays  most  money  immediately.  It 
is  wiser,  however,  to  choose  the  job  which  has  the 


SCENE  IN  A  COTTON  MILL 

greater  possibilities.  The  business  man  always  builds 
for  the  future:  the  profits  five  or  ten  years  from  now 
are  what  he  thinks  of  rather  than  the  immediate  gain. 
When  you  have  chosen  your  business,  stick  to  it.  The 
man  who  stays  in  the  same  occupation  or  the  same  kind 
of  business  is  more  likely  to  succeed  than  the  man  who 
changes  from  one  to  another.  You  may  have  a  hard 

192 


time  in  business  at  first;  but  no  calling  pays  such  a 
high  rate  of  interest  on  knowledge  as  this,  and  after  you 
have  mastered  your  branch  of  it  you  will  find  that  the 
money  reward  comes  fast  and  constantly  increases. 

Skilled  Trades. — Maybe  you  are  thinking  of  be- 
coming a  locomotive  engineer.  Do  so  if  your  taste  runs 
that  way:  it  is  a  well-paid  occupation.  This  trade 
demands  physical  strength  and  good  nerves.  A  four- 
year  high  school  course  is  also  advisable,  as  an  engineer 
should  know  something  about  mechanics.  If  you  wish 
to  be  a  mason,  a  carpenter,  a  plasterer,  or  a  paper 
hanger,  you  will  find  a  high  school  course  beneficial. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  all  these  trades  are  busi- 
nesses as  well  as  trades,  and  a  student  gets  business 
training  in  high  school.  Perhaps  you  wish  to  be  an 
electrician.  No  calling  has  a  greater  future,  but  a  high 
school  course  is  necessary  to  advancement,  for  the 
electrician  must  know  much  about  .physics.  In  fact, 
there  are  no  vocations  in  the  modern  world,  with  the 
exception  of  unskilled  manual  labor,  in  which  education 
is  not  of  great  advantage. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Appoint    committees    to    give    advantages    and    disadvantages   of 
different  occupations. 

2.  Invite  representatives  of  various  occupations  to  talk  to  the  class  on 
the  possibilities  and  opportunities  offered  by  their  respective  lines  of  work. 

3.  Each  of  you  may  make  a  two-minute  speech  on  "What  I  Wish  to 
Do  When  I  am  Grown."    In  this  you  should  give  reasons  for  your  choice  of 
a  vocation. 

4.  Give  a  two-minute  talk  on  "How  I  Spend  My  Leisure  Time." 

5.  Discuss  the  ways  some  communities  help  their  people  spend  their 
leisure  time  wisely. 

6.  Estimate  how  much  of  life  is  spent  in  recreation. 

193 


CHAPTER  XXX 
OUTDOOR  LIFE 

Problems:  To  learn  (1)  how  outdoor  life  improves  one 
physically;  and  (2)  what  the  government  has  done  to  pro- 
vide national  playgrounds. 

Guard  Your  Health. — "I  cannot  run  because  it 
makes  my  heart  beat,"  once  said  a  pale,  undersized 
schoolboy  who  never  took  open-air  exercise.  This  lad 
caught  cold  easily,  and  when  he  tried  to  prepare  his 
home  work  he  became  tired  and  sleepy.  How  is  it 
with  you?  Is  your  weight  what  it  should  be  for  your 
health  and  age?  Do  you  enjoy  running,  hiking,  row- 
ing, and  group  games?  If  you  wish  to  be  strong  and 
well,  you  must  not  only  keep  clean,  eat  good  food,  and 
sleep  with  your  windows  open,  but  you  must  spend  a 
good  part  of  your  time  out  of  doors. 

What  Boys  and  Girls  Should  Weigh. — A  boy  or  girl 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  should  gain  twelve 
ounces  each  month.  If  you  are  not  gaining  in  weight 
at  this  rate,  you  should,  perhaps,  take  more  exercise  in 
the  open  air.  The  table  on  page  196  shows  what 
your  weight  ought  to  be  in  proportion  to  your  height. 

The  Olympic  Games. — The  ancient  Greeks  were  a 
strong  race  because  they  spent  much  time  under  the 
open  sky  of  their  beautiful  country.  About  seven  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ  they  inaugurated  the  Olympic 
Games,  to  which  gathered  athletes  from  every  city  in 
Greece.  These  games  were  held  every  fourth  year,  and 

194 


grew  to  be  the  greatest  festival  of  the  Greek  race. 
Thousands  of  people  came  to  witness  the  events,  and 
the  victors  were  awarded  the  highest  honors,  partly 
because  it  was  thought  that  the  gods  loved  those  who 
enjoyed  health  and  strength. 

Revival  of  Olympic  Games. — With  the  fall  of  Greece 
the  Olympic  Games  were  discontinued,  but  they  were 


A  ROWING  CREW  AT  PRACTICE 

revived  in  1896.  In  the  ancient  games  none  but  pure- 
blooded  Greeks  could  compete,  but  in  the  new  Olympic 
Games  athletes  from  the  whole  world  are  invited  to 
enter.  Our  country  has  always  sent  a  team,  and  has 
won  more  than  its  share  of  the  contests.  The  la'st 
games  for  some  years  were  held  at  Stockholm,  Sweden, 
in  1912,  and  American  athletes  made  more  points  than 

195 


HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT  TABLE  FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS 


L 

'oys 

G 

iris 

1 

5 

c 

— 

2 

1 

o 

1 

1 

I 

CO 

1 

2 

t 

^6  Years 

1 

§ 

& 

[0  Years 

2 

I 

2 

CO 

i 

2 

CO 

HH 

47 

54 

47 

53 

48 

56 

57 

48 

55 

56 

49 

58 

59 

49 

57 

58 

50 

60 

61 

62 

50 

59 

60 

51 

63 

64 

65 

51 

62 

63 

64 

52 

65 

67 

68 

52 

65 

66 

67 

53 

68 

69 

70 

71 

53 

68 

68 

69 

70 

54 

71 

72 

73 

74 

54 

70 

71 

72 

73 

55 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

55 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

56 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

56 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

57 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

57 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

58 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

90 

91 

58 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

59 

87 

88 

89 

90 

92 

94 

96 

59 

89 

90 

91 

93 

94 

95 

96 

60 

91 

92 

93 

94 

97 

99 

101 

60 

94 

95 

97 

99 

100 

102 

61 

.  .  . 

95 

97 

99 

102 

104 

106 

61 

99 

101 

102 

104 

106 

108 

62 

.  .  . 

100 

102 

104 

106 

109 

111 

62 

104 

106 

107 

109 

111 

113 

63 
64 

... 

105 

107 
113 

109 
115 

111 
117 

114 
118 

115 

119 

63 
64 

109 

111 
115 

112 
117 

113 
118 

115 
119 

117 

120 

65 
66 

... 

.... 

125 

122 
126 

123 
127 

124 

128 

65 
66 

117 
119 

119 
121 

120 
122 

122 
124 

123 
126 

67 

130 

131 

132 

133 

67 

124 

126 

127 

128 

68 

134 

135 

136 

137 

68 

126 

128 

130 

132 

69 
70 

.... 

.... 

138 

139 
142 

140 
144 

141 

145 

69 
70 

... 

129 

131 
134 

133 
136 

135 

138 

71 

147 

149 

150 

71 

138 

140 

142 

72 

152 

154 

155 

72 

145 

147 

73 

157 

159 

160 

74 

162 

164 

965 

• 

75 

.... 

169 

170 

76 

... 

174 

175 

196 


those  of  any  other  nation.  They  also  distinguished 
themselves  at  the  Paris  games  in  1920.  At  the  Inter- 
national Athletic  Meet  for  Women,  held  in  Paris  in 
1922,  the  United  States  ranked  second.  The  world 
record  for  the  shot  put  was  made  by  Lucile  Godbold, 
of  South  Carolina. 

Group  Games. — A  strange  feature  of  the  ancient 
Olympic  Games  was  that  the  contests  were  individual 
— that  is,  there  were  no  group  games  such  as  baseball  and 
basket  ball,  but  each  athlete  competed  against  the 
whole  field.  We  cannot  live  to  ourselves,  as  we  have 
learned  in  this  book,  but  must  form  ourselves  into  com- 
munities. The  games  of  today  are  organized  on  the 
community  plan.  The  baseball  team  is  a  community 
just  as  much  as  is  the  town  or  state,  and  it  is  by  team- 
work that  games  are  won. 

Advantage  of  Consolidated  Schools. — One  large  ad- 
vantage of  the  consolidated  school  over  the  one-room 
country  school  is  that  the  students  are  able  to  organize 
teams  and  compete  with  other  schools  in  baseball, 
basket  ball,  tennis,  and  other  games.  Has  your  school 
a  well-equipped  playground  for  students  of  all  ages? 
If  not,  your  Civics  Club  should  go  to  work;  for  nothing 
adds  more  to  school  spirit  and  to  the  health  of  the 
students  than  athletics. 

Good  Sportsmanship. — The  ancient  Greeks  would 
not  permit  a  person  who  had  committed  a  crime  or  who 
was  irreverent  to  the  gods  to  enter  the  Olympic  Games. 
They  wished  every  contest  to  be  fair,  and  were  careful 
that  only  honorable  people  competed.  Occasionally  we 
hear  of  a  school  which  permits  outsiders,  or  "ringers," 
to  play  on  its  teams.  This  should  not  be  allowed. 

197 


Sometimes  the  students  of  a  school  will  jeer  at  the 
members  of  a  visiting  team.  This  is  a  violation  of  the 
laws  of  courtesy.  Frequently  when  an  athletic  team  is 
victorious,  the  cry  is  raised  that  the  umpire  gave  bad 
decisions,  or  that  the  victors  used  unfair  methods. 
Such  charges  are  unsportsmanlike.  It  is  a  good  thing 
to  be  a  "good  loser." 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

A  SWIMMING  POOL 

City  Playgrounds. — Has  your  city  well-equipped 
playgrounds,  athletic  fields,  and  swimming  pools?  If 
it  lacks  these  facilities,  your  club  should  help  in  a  cam- 
paign to  secure  them. 

Story  of  a  Playground. — A  boy  was  once  arrested  for 
playing  in  the  streets  when  the  city  provided  no  play- 
grounds. When  he  grew  to  be  an  old  man,  he  provided 
in  his  will  that  $100,000  of  his  estate  should  go  to  the 

198 


city  for  a  playground.  This  is  now  in  operation,  and 
thousands  of  children  are  made  happy  and  healthy 
because  a  good  citizen  realized  the  value  of  play. 

Camping. — Did  you  ever  visit  a  Boy  Scout  camp? 
The  camp  visited  by  the  writer  was  ten  miles  from  the 
city.  The  tents  and  dining  room  were  located  on  a  high, 
forest-clad  hill  overlooking  a  beautiful  pond,  where  the 
boys  swam,  fished,  and  went  boating.  Spending  their 
days  in  all  kinds  of  outdoor  sports,  they  had  appetites 
like  wolves,  and  when  night  came  they  slept  like  logs. 
The  American  flag  floated  from  a  tall  flag  pole,  and 
there  were  appropriate  exercises  when  it  was  lowered  at 
sunset.  At  night  the  boys  gathered  around  the  camp 
fire  and  listened  to  stories.  Can  you  imagine  better  fun 
than  such  camping? 

National  Parks  Established. — In  1920  more  than  a 
million  people  visited  the  nineteen  national  parks  of  our 
country.  Many  of  these  visitors  traveled  in  automo- 
biles, crossing  high  mountains  and  camping  each  night 
by  the  side  of  some  clear  stream.  Over  25,000  auto- 
mobile parties  camped  in  Yellowstone  Park  in  1920. 
Would  you  not  like  to  take  such  a  trip?  Well,  perhaps 
some  day  when  you  are  grown  you  may  own  a  car  and 
spend  your  vacation  in  this  way;  so  let  us  have  a  few 
facts  about  our  national  parks.  They  were  established 
by  Congress  for  the  following  purpose,  to  use  the  exact 
words  of  the  act  establishing  them:  "To  conserve  the 
scenery  and  the  natural  and  historic  objects  and  the 
wild  life  therein,  and  to  provide  for  the  enjoyment  of 
the  same  in  such  a  manner  and  by  such  means  as  will 
leave  them  unimpaired  for  the  enjoyment  of  future 
generations."  The  first  national  park  to  be  established 

199 


was  that  of  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  Here  are  to  be 
found  wonderful  hot  springs,  wjth  curative  properties, 
believed  by  some  to  be  the  Fountain  of  Youth  for 
which  Ponce  de  Leon  sought. 

Other  Parks.— Every  school  child  knows  about  Yel- 
lowstone and  Yosemite  National  Parks,  but  there  are 
others  almost  as  interesting.  Visit  the  Mesa  Verde  in 


Copyright,  E.  M.  Newman 

CAMPING  IN  A  NATIONAL  PARK 

Colorado,  and  you  will  see  the  homes  of  the  ancient 
cliff-dwellers.  In  the  Sequoia  Park  of  California  you 
will  find  the  great  trees  which  are  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  world.  In  far  away  Hawaii  there  is  a  park  in  which 
are  three  active  volcanoes  and  a  lake  of  molten  lava. 
Alaska  has  the  Mount  McKinley  Park,  in  the  midst  of 
which  stands  the  highest  peak  of  North  America. 

200 


The  Love  of  Nature. — We  cannot  close  this  chapter 
without  urging  boys  and  girls  to  cultivate  a  love  for 
nature.  Do  you  like  to  raise  vegetables  and  flowers  in 
your  garden?  Do  you  enjoy  roaming  in  the  fields  and 
forests,  studying  the  plants,  insects,  and  birds?  Is  it 
a  great  pleasure  for  you  to  visit  the  seashore  and  moun- 
tains? The  seashore,  the  mountains,  the  blue  sky,  and 
the  birds  and  flowers  are  all  yours,  and  add  to  the  joy 
of  living. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  six  Good  Health  Rules  that  everybody  should  follow. 

2.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  "good  loser";  give  an  illustration. 

3.  If  you  have  ever  been  on  a  camping  trip,  tell  the  class  about  your 
experiences. 

4.  Debate  this  question:    Resolved,   That  such  natural  wonders  as 
Mammoth  Cave,  Natural  Bridge,  and  the  Grand  Canyon  should  be  con- 
verted into  national  parks  by  the  government. 

,5.  Have  a  contest  at  your  next  meeting  to  see  who  can  name  the 
longest  list  of  birds  that  are  to  be  seen  in  your  community. 
6.  Describe  the  most  beautiful  spot  in  your  community. 


201 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

AGRICULTURE  AND  MANUFACTURING 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  two  important  branches  of 
industry;  and  (2)  to  learn  how  they  have  developed. 

The  Greatest  of  All  Occupations. — Do  you  live  on  a 
farm?  If  so,  you  should  be  proud  of  it,  for  farming  is 
the  greatest  of  all  industries.  There  could  be  no  cities, 
and  no  lawyers,  doctors,  teachers,  bankers,  or  artists, 
if  the  farmer  did  not  plant  and  harvest  his  crops. 
Visit  a  great  factory  and  see  the  thousands  of  skilled 
mechanics  busily  at  work:  they  could  not  con- 
tinue at  their  labor  of  converting  the  raw  materials 
into  finished  products  unless  the  farmer  sowed  and 
reaped. 

Wealth  of  Agriculture. — In  the  United  States  more 
than  seventeen  millions  of  people  are  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, and  the  total  value  of  the  farm  crops  of  our 
country  for  a  year  is  about  ten  billions  of  dollars.  This 
represents  one  of  our  greatest  sources  of  wealth. 

Advantages  of  Country  Life. — In  Chapter  XXIX 
you  were  told  the  advantages  of  different  callings,  farm- 
ing included.  Let  us  here  consider  some  further  reasons 
why  country  boys  should  decide  to  take  up  farming  as 
a  vocation. 

The  Beauties  of  Nature. — The  city,  with  its  bril- 
liantly lighted  streets,  tall  buildings,  and  spacious  parks, 
has  many  elements  of  beauty,  but  the  boy  or  girl  who 
has  never  seen  the  loveliness  that  God  spreads  over 

202 


country  lanes  and  meadows  has  missed  a  great  deal. 
Who  would  want  to  camp  on  a  vacant  lot  in  the  city? 
We  enjoy  camping  because  our  tents  are  pitched  by  the 
forest's  edge.  Perhaps  a  carpet  of  green  spreads  before 
us  and  in  the  distance  there  is  a  river  or  lake.  We  may 
commune  with  nature  and  study  the  insects,  birds, 
plants,  and  wild  flowers.  The  farmer  lives  his  life 


i 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

A  WHEAT  FIELD 

amid  such  surroundings.  He  loves  the  birds  that 
visit  him  at  the  different  seasons,  welcomes  the  buds  and 
flowers  of  springtime,  and  rejoices  when  the  corn  is 
shocked  in  the  fields  and  the  autumn  leaves  deck  the 
trees  with  their  wealth  of  colors. 

The  Farmer  is  Independent. — This  statement  must 
not  be  taken  to  mean  that  the  farmer  lives  to  and  for 
himself;  for  we  are  all  members  of  a  community  and 

203 


should  help  each  other.  Nor  does  it  mean  that  the 
farmer  can  fix  the  prices  of  his  crops:  the  opposite  is 
usually  true.  The  farmer  is  independent,  however,  in 
the  sense  that  he  plans  and  carries  on  his  own  work. 
In  a  large  factory  each  worker  has  his  work  planned  for 
him.  He  simply  pulls  a  lever  and  the  machine  smooths 


OLD-TIME  HARVESTING 

the  piece  of  iron  or  fashions  the  wood  according  to  the 
pattern.  Such  work  becomes  monotonous  and  irksome. 
But  the  farmer  has  a  new  problem  to  meet  each  day, 
and  matches  his  mind  against  blight,  drought,  and  frost. 
He  is  also  independent  in  the  sense  that  he  usually  does 
not  have  to  worry  about  his  daily  bread.  Even  if  the 

204 


crops  are  poor,  he  still  has  food  to  eat  and  a  shelter  for 
his  family. 

Farming  is  Profitable. — Many  boys  hesitate  to  be- 
come farmers  because  they  think  that  other  vocations 
give  larger  returns  in  money.  It  is  true  that  no  farmer 
can  accumulate  such  a  fortune  as  Carnegie  or  Wool- 
worth  had,  but  he  can  make  a  better  living  than  the 
average  city  worker.  There  was  a  time  when  the  farmer 
worked  too  hard,  and  was  so  weary  at  night  that  he 
did  not  care  much  for  reading  or  recreation.  In  those 
days  farming  was  an  unprofitable  occupation,  but  with 
improved  machinery  and  better  methods  of  cultivation 
agriculture  offers  the  industrious  man  an  opportunity 
for  a  good  living  without  so  much  drudgery. 

How  to  Improve  Farm  Life. — Although  farming  has 
many  advantages,  there  are  ways  in  which  the  life  of 
the  farmer  may  be  improved. 

1.  The  farmer  should  strive  to  increase  production. 
The  farmers  of  European  countries  raise  thirty-five 
bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre,  while  our  average  is  only 
twenty-nine  bushels.  They  raise  one  hundred  and 
ninety-six  bushels  of  potatoes  to  the  acre,  and  we  less 
than  a  hundred.  When  you  study  agriculture  in  your 
high  school  course,  you  will  learn  about  crop  rotation, 
the  proper  use  of  fertilizers,  and  improved  farm  ma- 
chinery as  the  means  of  making  land  give  larger  returns. 
You  will  also  learn  about  the  work  of  our  agricultural 
colleges  and  experiment  stations  in  developing  new 
species  of  grains  and  vegetables  that  resist  plant  dis- 
ease and  give  larger  yields  than  the  old  plants  of  our 
grandfathers.  You  will  learn  that  the  manner  of  pre- 
paring the  seed  bed  is  important.  Deep  plowing  makes 

205 


the  soil  give  out  its  full  fertility;  shallow  plowing  results 
in  a  small  yield.  A  well- worked  surface  helps  to  hold 
the  moisture  for  the  plants  instead  of  letting  it  run  off. 
The  kind  of  seed  sown  makes  a  great  deal  of  difference. 
It  is  as  expensive  to  sow  poor  seed  and  cultivate  the 
plants  growing  from  it  as  to  use  good  seed  and  cultivate 
good  plants.  The  modern  farmer  studies  seed  with 
great  care,  and  decides  on  the  kind  best  adapted  to  his 
soil.  After  the  planting,  the  crop  must  be  carefully 
worked  until  harvest.  If  scientific  methods  are  used, 
the  increase  in  yield  will  be  astonishing. 

2.  Better  business  methods  should  be  employed  by 
the  farmer.     Merchants  employ  bookkeepers  to  keep 
the  account  of  their  purchases,  sales,  and  expenses.    In 
factories  trained  men  study  the  costs  of  each  article 
made.     Many  farmers  keep  no  records  of  the  cost  of 
milk  produced,  eggs  laid,  and  crops  Taised.     Another 
failure  of  the  farmer  to  use  business  methods  consists 
in  permitting  waste.     He  fails  to  protect  expensive 
machinery  from  the  weather,  and  often  lets  rats  and 
plant  disease  destroy  his  crops.    Each  year  thousands 
of  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  other  animals  die  because 
farmers  do  not  take  necessary  steps  to  keep  disease 
from  spreading  among  them.    In  other  ways  the  farmer 
fails  to  employ  the  system  that  makes  manufacturing 
and  commerce  profitable. 

3.  The  farmer  needs  education.     If  you  expect  to 
follow  this  calling,  you  should  have  a  high  school  edu- 
cation at  least.     The  educated  farmer  uses  business 
methods  on  his  farm  and  increases  production.    It  has 
been  found  that  farmers  with  a  college  education  make 
greater  profits  than  those  with  a  high  school  training, 

206 


and  that  the  latter  make  twice  as  much  as  do  farmers 
who  have  had  only  a  "reading  and  writing"  education. 
4.  Farm  life  must  be  made  more  attractive  for 
women.  At  times  the  farm  is  a  very  dull  place  for  the 
housekeeper.  There  is  a  dreary  round  of  work;  while 
the  farmer  is  out  on  his  improved  sulky  plow,  she  is 
washing  clothes  with  an  old-fashioned  washing  machine 
instead  of  with,  an  electric  one.  The  farmhouse  should 


MODERN  HARVESTING 

be  equipped  with  a  furnace,  electric  lights,  running 
water,  and  every  modern  convenience.  There  should 
be  magazines,  musical  instruments,  and  a  telephone 
for  the  young  people,  and  if  possible  a  car  for  the 
family.  If  all  farmhouses  were  made  attractive,  a 
larger  number  of  girls  would  wish  to  become  farmers' 
wives. 

Importance   of  Manufacturing. — The  first  farmer 
scratched  the  soil  with  a  sharp  stick.    He  did  not  have 

207 


Photograph  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 

STRUCTURAL  IRON  WORKERS 


(208) 


even  a  hoe  or  spade.  Needless  to  say,  he  was  a  poor 
farmer.  All  the  implements  that  help  the  farmer, 
such  as  the  plow,  reaper,  and  threshing  machine, 
are  made  in  factories.  To  understand  how  necessary 
factories  are,  you  have  only  to  make  an  inspection  of 
your  school.  The  stove  or  furnace  was  made  in  a 
factory.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  iron  girders 
supporting  the  floors,  the  doors,  the  windows,  the 
desks,  and  the  roofing.  In  fact,  we  could  not  get 
along  without  the  thousands  of  factories  in  which 
are  made  the  numberless  conveniences  of  life.  In  1914 
over  ten  million  people  were  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
turing industries  of  the  United  States,  and  the  total 
value  of  manufactured  products  was  over  twenty-four 
billion  dollars. 

Early  Stages  of  Manufacturing. — Three  hundred 
years  ago,  when  our  country  was  first  being  settled, 
there  were  no  factories.  The  women  made  cloth,  soap, 
candles  in  the  house.  Shoes  were  made  in  the  shop  of 
the  shoemaker  instead  of  in  factories.  Ironwork  was 
made  by  blacksmiths.  In  those  days  people  were  happy, 
perhaps,  but  they  were  not  so  happy  as  people  are  today. 
We  live  in  steam-  or  furnace-heated  houses,  ride  in 
street  cars  or  automobiles,  and  have  scores  of  conveni- 
ences unknown  to  our  great-grandfathers. 

The  Age  of  Steam  and  Steel. — The  invention  of  the 
steam  engine  by  James  Watt  in  1769  was  probably  the 
greatest  discovery  of  the  ages.  It  made  the  locomotive 
possible  and  brought  about  the  age  of  railways.  With 
the  railroad  came  the  spread  of  factories,  which  before 
that  time  could  only  be  built  on  swift  streams.  As 
factories  sprang  up,  great  cities  flourished.  The  dis- 

209 


covery  of  the  use  of  coal  increased  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  a  hundredfold.  Thus  our  modern 
mechanical  civilization  arose. 

A  Modern  Factory. — Let  us  pay  an  imaginary  visit 
to  a  large  shoe  factory.  We  go  to  Brockton,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  spend  the  night  at  the  leading  hotel.  We 
get  an  early  breakfast  the  following  morning  because 
we  wish  to  reach  the  factory  in  time  to  see  the  workers 


PICKING  COTTON 

arrive.  We  are  at  the  great  building  at  6.50  A.M. 
Hundreds  of  people  are  filing  through  the  main  entrance, 
and  among  them  are  many  women  and  scores  of  boys 
just  past  the  compulsory  school  attendance  age.  The 
whistle  blows,  and  there  immediately  begin  the  hum 
and  pounding  of  numbers  of  machines. 

Division  of  Labor. — An  interesting  matter  to  be 
noted  in  the  factory  is  what  is  called  the  division  of 

210 


labor.  One  machine  cuts  shoe  soles,  another  makes 
heels,  a  third  punches  eyelets  in  the  uppers,  while  still 
another  sews  the  parts  of  the  shoe  together.  By 
dividing  the  labor  into  small  tasks,  each  of  which  is 
done  by  skilled  workmen,  thousands  of  shoes  can  be 
turned  out  daily.  As  we  watch  the  hundreds  of  workers 
running  their  machines,  we  see  how  necessary  labor  is. 
Probably  the  workers  in  the  factory  belong  to  a  labor 
union  or  unions.  If  they  desire  higher  wages  or  shorter 
hours,  a  committee  of  the  union  waits  on  the  manager 
of  the  factory  and  lays  before  him  their  grievances. 
Sometimes  the  manager,  as  the  representative  of  the 
owners,  grants  the  request  of  the  workers.  If  the 
demands  are  refused,  the  workers  may  decide  to  strike— 
that  is,  to  quit  work  in  an  effort  to  compel  the  factory 
owners  to  grant  the  requests.  When  strikes  began  in 
this  country,  they  were  usually  accompanied  by  acts 
of  violence  on  the  part  of  the  strikers.  In  recent  years, 
however,  strikes  have  been  more  peaceful.  Frequently 
they  are  settled  without  resort  to  violence. 

Capital  Necessary. — One  thing  that  impresses  us 
about  a  factory  is  that  it  must  take  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  dollars  to  build  it  and  to  purchase  the  ma- 
chinery. Money  is  also  needed  to  buy  materials  and  to 
pay  workmen  before  the  manufactured  products  are 
sold.  Where  does  this  money  come  from?  It  is  fur- 
nished by  the  stockholders,  who  invest  their  savings 
in  the  factory.  Such  money  is  called  the  capital  of 
the  business,  and  the  persons  who  contribute  it  are 
capitalists.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  no  factory, 
store,  or  other  enterprise  can  be  carried  on  without 
capital. 


CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

Why  do  so  many  people  leave  the  country  for  the  city? 
What  means  may  be  employed  to  keep  them  on  the  farm? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  a  trade  union? 
What  is  meant  by  the  "union  label"? 

2.  Debate  the  following  question:    Resolved,  That  farming  is  more 
important  than  manufacturing. 

3.  Appoint  a  classmate  to  read  a  paper  on  "Modern  Conveniences  in 
the  Farm  Home." 

4.  Appoint  a  committee  to  visit  a  factory  and  report  on  what  they  see. 

5.  Find  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  all  the  crops  in  your  section. 

6.  Discuss  ways  of  increasing  crop  production. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  means  of  transportation  and 
communication;  and  (2)  to  trace  their  development. 

National  Growth. — One  hundred  years  ago  there 
were  no  railroads.  The  people  who  lived  in  the  back 
country  away  from  waterways  had  to  haul  their  goods 
many  miles  over  bad  roads.  There  were  few  cities; 
the  states  west  of  the  Appalachian  highland  were 
sparsely  peopled;  the  western  plains  were  practically 
unsettled,  and  the  land  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains 
was  a  lonely  desert.  In  older  parts  of  the  country  the 
roads  connecting  villages  and  cities  were  unimproved 
and  almost  impossible  of  travel  in  winter.  Telephone 
and  telegraph  lines  did  not  exist;  newspapers  were 
poor.  Each  little  community  lived  to  itself. 

How  the  Country  Became  Great. — If  you  were 
asked  to  explain  how  our  nation  grew  in  a  hundred 
years  from  a  sparsely  settled  country  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  greatest  nation  in  the  world,  extending 
from  ocean  to  ocean  and  having  more  than  a  hundred 
million  people,  you  might  truthfully  answer  by  naming 
the  following  inventions: 

Steamships.  Automobiles. 

Canals.  Modern  roads. 

Railroads.  Farming  machinery. 

Trolley  lines.  Telegraphs  and  telephones. 

These  wonderful  inventions  have  broken  up  the  iso- 

213 


lation  of  the  small  communities  in  which  our  great- 
grandfathers lived  and  made  the  United  States  one 
vast  community  or  neighborhood.  You  can  now 
travel  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  in  five  days,  or 
in  less  time  than  it  took  George  Washington  to  go  from 
Mount  Vernon  to  New  York  when  he  was  inaugurated 
as  our  first  President. 

First  Methods  of  Transportation. — The  history  of 
transportation  is  the  story  of  human  development. 
The  first  burdens  were  borne  on  the  backs  of  men. 
Then  animals — horses,  donkeys,  and  oxen — were  used 
for  a  long  period  before  roads  were  built:  the  loads 
were  fastened  to  the  backs  of  the  animals.  When  our 
ancestors  on  the  American  frontier  had  to  go  back  to 
primitive  ways  of  living,  because  of  the  absence  of 
roads  and  other  devices  of  civilization,  they  carried 
goods  on  pack-horses:  it  was  in  this  way  that  furs  and 
other  valuable  articles  first  crossed  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  In  Asia  and  Europe,  at  a  remote  period, 
roads  were  built,  and  wagons  were  used  for  carrying 
freight  and  people.  In  the  northern  American  colonies 
at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  there  were  some  good 
roads. 

Water  Transportation. — Transportation  by  water  is 
much  easier  than  by  road,  and  for  this  reason  men,  at  a 
very  early  time,  began  to  navigate  rivers  and  the  sea 
along  the  coast.  For  many  centuries,  however,  ships 
were  unsuited  for  long  voyages  or  rough  seas:  it  was 
not  until  the  Middle  Ages  that  the  art  of  sailing  vessels 
was  really  learned  and  it  was  not  until  the  discovery 
of  the  compass  that  voyages  of  months,  such  as  Colum- 
bus's,  became  possible.  After  that  time,  ships  pene- 

215 


trated  to  every  part  of  the  globe.  Yet  transportation 
by  sailing  vessels,  like  transportation  on  land  by  wagons, 
was  slow:  it  took  our  ancestors  who  crossed  the  Atlantic 
from  Europe  to  America  about  three  months  to  make 
the  voyage  now  accomplished  in  a  week.  What  the 
world  needed  and  demanded,  after  the  settlement  of 
America,  was  a  quicker  method  of  transportation  and 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

A  SAILING  SHIP 

communication,  and,  since  the  demand  existed,  it  was 
met. 

Improved  Transportation. — At  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  land  transportation  was  much  the 
same  as  it  had  been  for  a  thousand  years.  But  with 
the  establishment  of  the  factory  system,  in  the  last 
years  of  that  century,  and  the  progress  of  invention, 
improvements  quickly  came.  The  old  dirt  roads  of 

216 


England  began  to  give  way  to  macadamized  highways, 
good  in  all  weathers.  Canals  were  dug  in  England  to 
connect  rivers,  so  that  goods  could  be  shipped  by  water 
for  long  distances.  The  macadamized  road  and  the 
canal  were  improvements,  but  they  were  not  sufficiently 
rapid  means  of  transportation  to  suit  vast  countries 
such  as  America.  The  demand  for  a  speedier  method 
quickened;  and  finally  George  Stephenson  adapted 
the  steam  engine,  invented  by  James  Watt,  to  hauling 
loads,  and  so  we  had  the  first  locomotive.  Railroads 
were  built  in  England  and  the  United  States,  and 
speedy  land  transportation  became  a  fact. 

The  Steamship. — About  the  same  time  steam  was 
applied  to  water  transportation.  The  two  inventors  of 
the  steamship,  John  Fitch  and  James  Rumsey,  failed 
because  they  could  not  obtain  sufficient  capital  to 
carry  out  their  plans.  In  1807  a  steamboat  built  by 
Robert  Fulton  ascended  the  Hudson  River  to  Albany. 
This  showed  the  world  the  possibilities  of  the  new 
system  of  navigation.  By  1812  steamboats  were 
running  on  the  Western  rivers,  and  in  1819  the  first 
steamship  that  ever  crossed  the  sea  sailed  from  Savan- 
nah to  Liverpool.  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  steamers  traversed  every  ocean  and  the  time 
required  for  voyaging  from  Europe  to  America  had 
been  cut  in  half. 

Trolleys  and  Automobiles.— What  the  railroads  did 
for  long  distance  transportation,  trolley  lines  have 
done  for  local  service.  Every  city  in  the  country  has 
its  trolley  lines,  which  transport  passengers  rapidly 
for  low  fares  and  sometimes  carry  light  freight.  But 
another  kind  of  transportation  was  demanded  by  the 

217 


modern  world  and  that  was  rapid  private  transporta- 
tion. This  need  was  supplied  by  the  invention  of  the 
automobile  in  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  automobile  gives  one  or  more  persons  a  means  of 
traveling  at  railroad  speed.  It  has  somewhat  lessened 
the  value  of  railways  for  short  distance  transportation 
and  has  caused  such  a  demand  for  good  roads  that 


Photograph  by  Underwood  and  Undferwood 

ELECTRIC  MOTOR  AND  TRAIN 

every  state  in  the  United  States  is  now  constructing 
improved  highways. 

The  Railroads. — Nothing  has  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  growth  of  our  great  cities  and  the  development 
of  the  western  part  of  our  country  as  railroads.  The 
first  permanent  railroad  in  the  United  States  was  built 
in  1828.  It  was  only  twenty  miles  long  and  is  now  a 

218 


part  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  system.  Many  people 
objected  to  the  building  of  railroads.  Here  are  some 
of  the  arguments  they  advanced: 

Railroads  will  scare  the  horses  to  death. 

The  noise  of  the  engine  will  stop  hens  from  laying  and 
cows  from  giving  milk. 

Sparks  from  the  engine  will  set  fire  to  fields,  barns,  and 
dwelling  houses. 

Teamsters  and  other  persons  employed  in  the  hauling 
business  will  be  thrown  out  of  employment. 

People  will  travel  too  much,  to  the  neglect  of  their 
business. 

It  will  cost  too  much  money  to  build  railroads. 

None  of  these  objections  proved  true,  and  railroads 
slowly  spread  over  the  country.  A  railway  entered 
Chicago  from  the  east  in  1852;  a  few  years  later  the 
Mississippi  River  was  reached,  and  last  of  all  came  a 
transcontinental  system,  the  Union  Pacific  railroad. 
All  along  the  line  of  this  railway,  farm  lands  were 
opened  to  homeseekers  and  prosperous  towns  and 
cities  sprang  up. 

If  Railroads  Were  to  Stop  Running. — Railroads  are 
as  essential  to  the  life  and  prosperity  of  a  modern 
nation  as  the  circulation  of  blood  is  to  the  human 
body.  Imagine  what  would  happen  if  the  railroads 
stopped  running!  In  the  farming  sections  crops  would 
rot  in  the  fields  for  lack  of  means  to  get  them  to  market. 
A  great  city  such  as  New  York  would  be  without  milk, 
food,  coal,  all  raw  materials.  In  a  few  weeks  the  people 
would  be  starving  and  freezing,  business  would  be 
dead,  and  the  city  would  be  one  great  desolation. 

Cost  of  Railroads. — It  takes  an  enormous  sum  of 
money  to  run  the  railroads.  Many  thousands  of 

219 


employees  have  to  be  paid,  new  engines  and  coaches 
must  be  purchased,  and  the  tracks  and  roadbed  are 
kept  in  good  repair  so  that  the  lives  of  passengers  may 
be  safe.  Where  does  this  money  come  from?  It  comes 
from  every  family  in  the  United  States.  The  railroad 
must  be  paid  for  transporting  all  the  coal  used  in  your 
home,  most  of  the  food  you  get  from  your  grocer  and 
butcher,  and  nearly  everything  else  that  you  buy  in 
the  stores. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission.— Who  deter- 
mines the  passenger  fares  and  freight  rates  of  rail- 
roads? Should  each  railroad  be  allowed  to  charge  what 
it  wishes  or  should  the  government  decide  upon  the 
rates?  The  former  was  the  system  for  many  years; 
the  latter  plan  is  now  employed.  The  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  in  Washington  fixes  the  rates, 
so  that  the  railroads  may  make  a  fair  profit  for  the 
stockholders  while  at  the  same  time  the  cost  of  living 
will  be  kept  down.  Each  state  has  a  railroad  or  cor- 
poration commission  to  regulate  short  lines  operating 
wholly  within  the  state.  The  national  government 
alone  has  the  right  to  regulate  interstate  commerce — 
that  is,  railroads  and  steamship  lines  carrying  goods 
from  one  state  to  another. 

Government  Ownership. — Should  the  government 
own  and  manage  the  railroads  or  should  they  be  run 
by  private  corporations  under  government  supervision? 
In  Europe  many  of  the  railroads  are  under  government 
ownership,  and  our  government  took  control  of  the 
railways  during  the  World  War.  There  are  many 
arguments  for  and  against  government  ownership  or 
management.  At  the  present  time  the  majority  of 

220 


people  in  the  United  States  believe  in  the  private 
ownership  and  management  of  railroads  under  strict 
governmental  supervision. 

Rapid  Transit  in  Cities. — Did  you  ever  stop  to 
consider  how  the  street-car  system  of  your  city  affects 
the  happiness  and  well-being  of  the  people?  If  you 
have  a  good  system,  with  enough  cars  to  carry  the 
passengers  in  comfort,  the  people  living  in  the  suburbs 
travel  rapidly  to  and  from  the  business  section.  If 
the  service  is  poor,  they  are  delayed.  The  great  city 
of  New  York  has  one  of  the  best  rapid-transit  systems 
in  the  world.  Millions  of  people  are  transported  daily 
on  surface  cars,  on  elevated  trains  built  high  above  the 
streets,  and  in  subways.  New  York's  subways  may 
well  be  considered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
You  enter  a  station,  pass  down  a  flight  of  stairs,  and 
find  yourself  some  twenty  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  street.  Here  are  four  tracks,  two  for  local  and  two 
for  express  trains.  You  board  an  express  train,  say, 
near  Grant's  Tomb  on  Riverside  Drive,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  emerge  from  the  subway  in  Brooklyn,  having 
gone  under  East  River  through  a  great  tube  that  is  a 
part  of  the  subway.  Work  was  begun  on  the  subway 
in  1900.  At  the  present  time  there  are  about  seventy 
miles  of  this  wonderful  system,  which  was  constructed 
at  a  cost  of  $400,000,000. 

Street  Railway  Franchise. — Your  street-car  system 
operates  under  a  franchise  granted  by  the  city  for  a 
certain  term  of  years.  This  franchise  sets  forth  what 
streets  are  to  be  used  by  the  car  company,  the  fare  to 
be  charged,  and  the  schedule  on  which  cars  are  to  be 
run.  If  your  street-car  service  is  bad,  the  city  officials 


should  see  that  improvements  are  made,  for  a  city  can 
hardly  prosper  without  a  rapid-transit  system  giving 
all  sections  good  transportation  facilities. 

Good  Roads. — The  good  citizen  believes  in  good 
roads  and  is  willing  to  pay  for  them.  Every  school 
child  in  America  should  be  a  good  roads  "booster," 
as  good  roads  and  advancing  civilization  go  hand  in 
hand.  If  you  know  people  opposed  to  road  improve- 


MODERN  ROAD  BUILDING 

ment,  here  are  some  arguments  you  may  present  to 
them: 

1.  Good  roads  help  the  schools.  In  counties  which 
have  good  roads,  the  one-room  school  is  giving  way  to 
consolidated  schools,  because  children  are  able  to  travel 
longer  distances.  School  attendance  is  also  much 
better,  because  parents  do  not  keep  their  children  at 
home  on  account  of  muddy  roads. 

222 


2.  Good  roads  make  life  more  pleasant  for  every- 
body.    When  the  roads  are  hard  and  smooth,  people 
visit  each  other  with  ease,  attend  church  and  school 
entertainments,  and  even  go  to  distant  towns  without 
fear  of  being  stuck  in  the  mud. 

3.  Good   roads   help   the  farmer  in   his   business. 
Heavy  loads  can  be  hauled  over  improved  highways 
and  more  trips  can  be  made  in  a  day.    To  illustrate — 
one  farmer  living  six  miles  from  the  railroad  had  to 
haul  his  grain  to  the  station.    On  a  bad  road  a  truck 
could  not  be  used,  and  his  team  made  only  two  trips  a 
day,  carrying  on  each  load  a  dozen  bags  of  corn.    When 
the  road  was  improved,  the  farmer  purchased  a  truck 
that  made  four  trips  a  day,  carrying  each  time  twenty- 
four  bags  of  grain.    You  may  easily  see  what  a  saving 
this  was  to  the  farmer.    Good  roads  increase  the  value 
of  land.    There  are  many  cases  where  farms  located  on 
unimproved  roads  were  sold  at  prices  ranging  from 
$10.00  to  $20.00  an  acre.     These  same  farms  brought 
from  $75.00  to  $100.00  an  acre  after  the  roads  had  been 
improved. 

Road- Working  Systems. — What  is  the  best  system 
for  working  the  roads  of  a  district  or  county?  Until 
recent  years  there  was  no  system.  The  road  overseer 
would  occasionally  call  out  all  able-bodied  citizens  to 
work  the  roads.  The  small  sums  of  money  voted  for 
highways  were  spent  in  temporary  repairs  which  the 
next  hard  rain  would  destroy.  In  recent  years  both 
the  state  and  national  governments  have  adopted  the 
policy  of  helping  local  communities  to  build  roads. 
This  is  a  good  system,  because  roads  are  then  built 
under  the  direction  of  the  best  engineers,  who  see  that 

223 


the  proper  grading  is  observed  and  the  proper  materials 
used  in  the  construction  of  roads  receiving  state  or 
national  aid.  Road  building  is  at  present  largely  in 
the  hands  of  the  state  highway  commissions,  which 
work  rapidly  and  efficiently. 

The  Automobile. — The  automobile  has  been  one  of 
the  most  important  factors  in  the  good  roads  move- 
ment; for  the  owner  of  a  car  or  truck  is  always  an 
advocate  of  improved  highways.  Only  thirty-seven 


Photograph  by  Publishers  Photo  Service 

TRANSPORTATION — AIRSHIP  AND  AUTOMOBILE 

hundred  automobiles  were  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  in  1899;  in  1920  the  output  was  nearly  two 
million.  There  are  now  nearly  eight  and  a  half  million 
passenger  cars  and  one  million  trucks  in  use  in  our 
country.  One  third  of  the  cars  are  owned  by  farmers. 
The  Airplane. — Air  navigation  bids  fair  to  rival 
land  travel  in  the  near  future.  It  has  not  been  many 
years  since  two  American  inventors,  the  Wright 
brothers,  of  Ohio,  made  the  first  successful  heavier-than- 

224 


air  flying  machine,  driven  by  a  gasoline  engine.  Since 
that  time  flying  has  developed  to  a  high  degree,  and  at 
present  mail,  passengers,  and  even  light  freight  are 
carried  by  airplanes  and  balloons.  More  and  more 
people  are  learning  aviation,  and  it  will  not  be  long 
before  airplanes  are  in  common  use.  Their  speed  and 
their  comparative  freedom  from  collisions — collisions 
are  the  main  drawback  to  automobiles — offer  great 
advantages.  It  seems  probable  that  traveling  in  air- 
planes at  a  hundred  miles  an  hour  will  soon  be  a 
commonplace  matter. 

Quick  Communication. — The  problem  of  rapid 
transportation  was,  solved  by  railroads  and  steamships. 
These  inventions  also  quickened  communication,  which 
for  centuries  was  very  slow.  The  Americans  and 
British  fought  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  on  January  8, 
1815,  because  there  was  no  other  means  than  sailing 
vessels  of  carrying  the  news  to  the  United  States  that 
peace  had  been  signed  at  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  on 
Christmas  Eve  of  1814.  A  hundred  years  ago  it  took 
days  for  letters  and  newspapers  to  come  from  Boston 
to  Washington.  Railroads  and  steamships  greatly 
reduced  the  time  of  communication. 

Telegraphs  and  Telephones. — But  some  still  speed- 
ier means  of  communication  was  called  for:  people 
were  not  willing  to  wait  for  news  to  be  brought  by 
trains.  This  demand  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  electric 
telegraph  by  Samuel  Morse.  After  years  of  effort, 
Congress  gave  him  a  small  grant  of  money  to  establish 
a  telegraph  line  between  Baltimore  and  Washington — 
the  first  telegraph  line  in  the  world.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1844  just  about  the  time  that  the  national 

225 


convention  of  the  Democratic  party  met  in  Baltimore. 
When  James  K.  Polk  was  nominated  for  President, 
the  news  flashed  over  the  wires  to  Washington,  where 
the  people  learned  of  the  event  a  few  minutes  after 
it  occurred.  This  introduced  the  telegraph  to  the 
notice  of  the  world.  For  many  years,  however,  there 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

TELEPHONING  FROM  A  MOVING  TRAIN 

was  no  telegraph  across  the  ocean.  Cyrus  W.  Field 
long  worked  to  lay  a  cable  containing  wires  between 
England  and  America  and  succeeded  at  length  in 
1868.  Soon  the  whole  world  was  connected  by  tele- 
graph. Communication  by  voice  was  then  desired. 
This  was  brought  about  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
who  showed  the  telephone  as  a  new  invention  at  the 

226 


Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  For 
the  new  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  we  are  indebted 
to  Marconi. 

The  Radiophone. — The  latest  means  of  communi- 
cation is  the  radiophone,  which  is  a  kind  of  wireless 
telephone  system.  The  radio  machines  catch  sound 
waves  and  reproduce  them:  thus  by  means  of  .the 
radiophone  a  concert  in  New  York  may  be  heard  a 
thousand  miles  away  as  clearly  as  by  the  auditors  in 
the  hall.  The  possibilities  of  the  radiophone  are 
limitless,  and  we  may  expect  in  the  next  few  years  to 
talk  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  United  States 
from  any  place  where  we  happen  to  be — at  home,  on 
trains,  or  elsewhere.  Indeed,  we  may  well  wonder 
where  invention  will  stop,  what  new  marvels  of  trans- 
portation and  communication  the  next  decade  or  two 
will  bring  forth.  The  world  seems  on  the  threshold 
of  yet  greater  discoveries  than  any  of  the  past. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Write  a  paper  on  "How  Our  Street  Car  System  Can  be  Improved." 

2.  Answer  these  questions: 

Should  a  city  help  to  build  good  roads  in  the  country  surround- 
ing it?  Why? 

Who  made  the  following  inventions:  the  telegraph;  the  tele- 
phone; wireless  telegraphy? 

WThich  is  more  important,  the  airplane  or  wireless  telegraphy? 

3.  Debate   the   following   question:     Resolved,    That   railroads    have 
helped  to  develop  our  country  more  than  any  other  invention. 

4.  Mention  the  ways  in  which  the  state  is  helping  to  improve  the  roads 
of  your  community. 


227 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

WHERE  OUR  LIBERTY  CAME  FROM 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  development  of  English  lib- 
erty; and  (2)  to  trace  its  influence  on  the  government  of 
our  country. 

England  and  America. — The  United  States  is  now 
the  greatest  nation  in  the  world.  It  has  not  always 
been  so;  in  fact,  it  has  not  always  been  a  nation  at  all. 
For  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  America 
belonged  to  England  and  owed  allegiance  to  the 
king  of  England.  .  But  because  the  Americans  held 
certain  ideas  of  liberty,  handed  down  to  them  from 
their  fathers,  they  turned  against  the  king  when 
he  sought  to  rule  as  a  tyrant  and  won  their  inde- 
pendence. 

The  London  Charter. — Where  did  these  ideas  of 
liberty  come  from?  They  were  the  result  of  the  long 
growth  of  the  English  people.  England  was  con- 
quered in  the  year  1066  by  William,  Duke  of  the 
Normans.  The  Normans  were  the  descendants  of 
Danish  sea  robbers  who  had  settled  in  northern  France 
a  century  before.  There  they  learned  Christianity  and 
the  French  language  and  customs.  Crossing  the 
English  Channel  in  1066,  they  gave  battle  to  the 
English,  who  were  mainly  the  descendants  of  German 
tribes  that  had  settled  in  England  some  centuries 
earlier.  The  battle  of  Hastings  was  won  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  the  English  king  was  killed,  but  England 

228 


was  not  entirely  subdued.  Then  it  was  that  the  city 
of  London,  instead  of  resisting  William,  invited  him  to 
enter  it  as  king.  William,  in  return,  gave  the  people  of 
London  a  charter  granting  them  certain  privileges. 
William's  younger  son,  Henry  I,  when  he  became 
king,  issued  a  charter  to  the  whole  people  of  England 
giving  them  a  few  rights.  This  was  a  great  advance 
in  liberty,  for  in  those  days  the  body  of  the  people 
nowhere  in  the  world  had  many  rights. 

Magna  Carta. — William's  descendants  continued  to 
reign.  One  of  them,  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted,  needing 
money  and  finding  that  he  could  obtain  it  by  selling 
charters  such  as  that  of  Henry  I,  granted  many  of 
them.  These  charters,  promising  certain  towns  and 
workers  in  certain  callings  special  protection,  caused 
the  people  to  murmur  when  the  royal  government,  in 
later  times,  wrung  huge  taxes  from  them  by  force  and 
otherwise  violated  the  charters.  When  Richard  died 
his  brother  John,  a  bad  man,  came  to  the  throne. 
King  John  paid  no  attention  to  the  charters  granted  by 
Henry  I  and  Richard  I.  He  was  a  brutal  tyrant, 
robbing  people  of  their  money  and  shutting  them  up 
in  dungeons  to  die.  Finally  the  nobles,  weary  of  his 
misrule,  rose  against  him  and  forced  him,  in  1215,  to 
sign  the  Magna  Carta,  or  Great  Charter.  This  docu- 
ment promised  that  no  taxes  were  to  be  laid  without 
the  consent  of  the  king's  Great  Council;  that  justice 
was  not  to  be  sold  in  the  courts  or  delayed;  that  people 
accused  of  crime  were  to  be  punished  in  accordance  with 
the  laws,  not  the  king's  will;  and  that  people  were  not 
to  be  left  in  prison  without  trial  but  were  to  be  tried  by 
juries  soon  after  arrest.  This  was  one  of  the  most 

229 


important  steps  ever  taken  in  the  progress  of  human 
liberty. 

The  English  Parliament. — King  John's  son,  when  he 
grew  up,  became  as  bad  a  tyrant  as  his  father  had 
been.  The  nobles  rose  against  him,  as  they  had  against 
King  John.  One  of  them,  Simon  de  Montfort,  became 
the  ruler  of  England  in  the  king's  place.  Montfort 
enlarged  the  Great  Council,  which  before  had  con- 
sisted only  of  nobles  and  clergy,  by  adding  to  it  two 
men  chosen  from  every  town  in  England  and  two  men 
from  every  county.  Thus  was  formed  the  English 
Parliament,  the  greatest  legislative  body  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  Later  Parliament  was  divided  into  two 
chambers:  the  House  of  Lords,  made  up  of  nobles  and 
bishops,  and  the  House  of  Commons,  composed  of  men 
selected  by  the  towns  and  counties.  Parliament  came 
to  be  the  sole  power  that  levied  taxes.  The  king's 
wishes  as  to  levying  taxes  were  usually  followed,  but 
only  Parliament  had  the  right  to  tax  Englishmen. 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commons  were  elected  by 
the  votes  of  house  owners. 

Parliament  and  King. — The  old  line  of  English 
kings  died  out  and  the  king  of  Scotland,  James  VI, 
came  to  the  English  throne  as  James  I.  James  I 
paid  little  attention  to  Parliament,  which  he  disliked. 
His  son,  Charles  I,  attempted  to  levy  taxes  without 
the  consent  of  Parliament.  This  brought  on  a  war 
in  which  Parliament  was  victorious.  Charles  I  lost 
his  life,  and  for  a  time  there  was  no  king  in  England. 
Later  Charles's  son,  Charles  II,  became  king  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  James  II.  James  II,  like 
his  father,  sought  to  rule  without  regard  to  the  laws 

230 


and  customs  of  England  and  was  driven  from  the 
throne  in  the  Revolution  of  1688.  By  this  time  certain 
things  had  become  fixed  in  men's  minds  as  "the  rights 
of  Englishmen."  These  were  the  sole  right  of  Parlia- 
ment to  levy  taxes;  -the  right  of  men  accused  of  crime 
to  be  tried  where  the  crime  was  committed,  by  a  jury, 
and  promptly;  the  right  of  men  to  live  in  their  homes 
undisturbed  by  soldiers,  who  were  kept  in  private 
houses  everywhere  else  in  Europe.  The  Bill  of  Rights 
of  1689  confirmed  these  rights  and  added  others. 

The  English  Colonies. — Meanwhile  the  English 
colonies  hail  come  into  being  and  had  grown  into 
prosperous  communities.  The  first  colony  was  Vir- 
ginia, settled  in  1607;  the  next  Massachusetts,  planted 
in  1620.  The  right  of  the  colonists  to  tax  themselves 
through  their  representatives,  following  the  example 
of  the  English  Parliament,  was  asserted  when,  in  1619, 
the  first  representative  body  in  America  met  at  James- 
town, in  Virginia.  Two  men  were  selected  from  each 
"hundred,"  or  district,  to  sit  in  this  tiny  Parliament. 
Afterward,  the  New  England  colonies  and  the  other 
English  colonies  set  up  assemblies,  which  levied  taxes 
on  the  people  of  the  colonies  just  as  Parliament  did  on 
the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain.  The  settlers  enjoyed 
the  other  rights  of  Englishmen,  such  as  trial  by  jury. 

George  III. — Still  another  English  king,  George  III, 
attempted  to  rule  as  absolute  monarch.  George  was 
able  to  make  himself  master  of  Parliament  by  bribery, 
and  he  then  proposed  to  tax  the  American  colonies.  At 
this  time,  in  1765,  England  had  just  come  out  of  a  long 
and  expensive  war  with  France  which  had  ended  in  the 
gain  of  Canada.  England  was  greatly  in  need  of 


money  and  the  king  made  up  his  mind  to  tax  the 
colonies  for  the  upkeep  of  the  army  in  America.  Par- 
liament, at  the  king's  instance,  claimed  the  right  to 
tax  the  colonies,  since  they  were  a  part  of  the  British 
empire.  The  Americans  denied  the  right  of  Parliament 
to  tax  them  because  they  were  not  represented  in  it: 
their  own  colonial  assemblies  took  the  place  of  Parlia- 
ment with  them.  When  Parliament  levied  taxes  on  the 
American  colonies,  the  colonials  refused  to  pay  them. 
When  Parliament  passed  other  laws  quartering  troops 
in  the  homes  of  New  England  people  and  ordering  men 
accused  of  crimes  to  be  sent  away  from  New  England 
for  trial,  the  Americans  claimed  that  their  rights  as 
Englishmen  were  violated.  They  rose  in  arms,  and  the 
Revolutionary  War  began  in  1775. 

The  United  States. — The  thirteen  English  colonies 
then  formed  a  league,  known  as  the  United  Colonies. 
Each  colony  had  its  separate  government,  but  there 
was  a  common  representative  body  called  Congress. 
Each  colony  had  an  equal  vote  in  Congress.  This  early 
Congress,  the  Continental  Congress,  raised  an  army 
and  appointed  George  Washington  commander-in- 
chief .  Afterward  it  made  an  alliance  with  France  and 
directed  the  war  until  1781.  In  1776  it  issued  the 
famous  Declaration  of  Independence,  announcing 
that  the  United  Colonies  had  become  the  United 
States  of  America,  a  league  of  republics,  and  giv- 
ing the  reasons  for  separation  from  England.  But 
the  power  of  the  Continental  Congress  rested  solely 
on  the  consent  of  the  colonies;  it  had  no  definite 
authority.  Each  colony,  by  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, was  an  independent  republic;  it  taxed  itself 

232 


and  gave  what  money  it  saw  fit  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  This  was  a  poor  plan,  for  so  little  money- 
came  from  the  states  that  the  American  army  almost 
broke  up  at  Valley  Forge  for  lack  of  food  and  clothing. 
Articles  of  Confederation. — This  unsatisfactory 
state  of  affairs  led  to  the  formation,  in  1781,  of  a  govern- 
ment under  a  plan  which  is  known  as  the  Articles  of 
Confederation.  From  1781  to  1789  this  was  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  It  proved  unsatisfactory. 
There  was  no  President  or  other  head — that  is,  no  exec- 
utive department.  Congress  could  not  levy  taxes  or 
regulate  commerce;  consequently,  the  legislative  de- 
partment had  little  power;  there  were  no  courts  or 
judicial  department.  Such  a  government  was  wholly 
wanting  in  force.  At  the  instance  of  James  Madison,  of 
Virginia,  and  several  other  noted  men,  a  convention 
of  delegates  from  the  states  met  at  Philadelphia  in  1787 
to  alter  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  The  con- 
vention ended  by  framing  a  new  plan  of  government, 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  We  shall  con- 
sider this  in  the  following  chapter. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Tell  in  as  few  words  as  possible  how  our  liberty  was  handed  down  to 
us  from  England. 

2.  Answer  these  questions: 

On  what  principle  did  the  colonists  object  to  being  taxed  by 

the  British  Parliament? 
What  other  principles  established  in  England  were  violated  by 

measures  imposed  by  Parliament  upon  the  colonists? 

3.  Appoint  a  committee  to  give  a  list  of  America's  reasons  for  separat- 
ing from  England. 

4.  Give  two  well-known  instances  in  Patrick  Henry's  life  which  show 
American  feeling  at  the  time  we  fought  for  liberty.    Perhaps  some  of  you 
can  give  one  of  his  speeches. 

233 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Problems:  (1)  To  study  the  Constitution;  and  (2)  to 
learn  the  powers  of  the  federal  government. 

What  the  Constitution  Is. — The  Constitution  is  the 
basis,  the  foundation,  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  as.it  has  existed  from  1789  to  the  present  day. 
Read  it;  it  is  brief.1  By  reading  it,  you  will  learn  the 
duties  of  the  President,  the  powers  of  Congress,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  federal  courts.  From  it  you  will 
learn  the  scope  of  the  national  government  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  individual  states.  The  Con- 
stitution is  the  supreme  law  of  the  land.  No  state  may 
pass  any  law  that  is  contrary  to  the  Constitution. 
Every  officer  of  the  United  States  from  the  President 
down  takes  an  oath  to  observe  it. 

The  Convention. — The  thirteen  original  states,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Rhode  Island,  sent  their  wisest 
leaders  to  the  convention,  which  met,  in  1787,  in  Inde- 
pendence Hall,  Philadelphia,  where  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  had  been  signed  eleven  years  before. 
Among  the  delegates  were  George  Washington,  James 
Madison,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
George  Mason,  James  Wilson,  Robert  Morris,  Charles 
C.  Pinckney,  Roger  Sherman,  and  other  famous  persons. 
These  men  met  almost  daily  from  May  25  to  September 
17,  1787.  Although  the  Constitution  is  short  and  easy 

i  See  page  314. 

235 


to  read,  you  will  see  that  it  took  nearly  five  months  to 
complete  it.  Opinion  was  greatly  divided,  and  some- 
times the  debates  became  stormy.  Indeed,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  convention  would  have  broken  up  in 
failure  but  for  George  Washington,  who  was  chairman, 
and  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  acted  as  peacemaker  in 
bringing  together  the  divided  delegates. 

Differences  in  the  Convention. — The  main  disagree- 
ment between  the  members  of  the  convention  arose  over 
the  question  of  the  amount  of  power  to  be  given  the 
new  government.  Alexander  Hamilton,  of  New  York, 
wished  to  have  a  strong  central  government,  like  that 
of  England,  together  with  a  lessening  of  the  powers  of 
the  state  governments.  -Some  delegates,  on  the  other 
hand,  did  not  desire  to  see  the  states  weakened  at  all. 
Other  delegates  wished  to  have  three  Presidents  instead 
of  one.  Some  thought  that  the  President  should  be 
elected  for  life  instead  of  for  four  years.  Others  con- 
tended that  he  should  be  elected  by  the  whole  people, 
while  still  others  thought  that  it  would  be  best  for  him 
to  be  appointed  by  Congress.  A  section  of  the  conven- 
tion held  that  Congress  should  consist  of  only  one  body. 
The  delegates  from  the  small  states  argued  that  all 
states  should  have  the  same  power  in  Congress;  the 
large  states  held  that  representation  should  be  accord- 
ing to  population.  Slavery  caused  discussion.  Some 
of  the  northern  delegates  wished  to  stop  the  bringing  in 
of  slaves  from  Africa;  delegates  from  the  South  and 
from  New  England  argued  that  each  state  should  be 
allowed  to  decide  the  question  for  itself.  Another 
problem  was  that  of  foreign  commerce.  A  number  of 
delegates  contended  that  the  states  should  be  left  the 

236 


power  to  regulate  foreign  trade  to  suit  themselves; 
others  held  that  foreign  commerce  should  be  wholly 
in  the  hands  of  Congress. 

What  Was  Done. — In  most  cases  these  differences 
were  compromised.  Much  power  was  given  to  the 
federal  government,  but  much  was  left  to  the  states. 
It  was  decided  to  have  but  one  President,  elected  for 
four  years,  but  eligible  for  reelection.  He  was  neither 
to  be  elected  by  the  people  nor  appointed  by  Congress, 
but  to  be  elected  by  electors  chosen  in  turn  by  the 
people  of  each  state — the  same  number  of  electors  as 
Congressmen.  Congress  was  organized  in  two  bodies: 
representation  in  the  upper  house,  the  Senate,  was  to 
be  equal  for  all  states — two  Senators  for  each;  repre- 
sentation in  the  lower  body,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, was  by  population.  Foreign  commerce  was  to 
be  regulated  by  Congress:  the  states  were  to  give  up 
all  control  of  it.  The  federal  government  was  to  have 
the  sole  power  to  make  treaties  with  foreign  countries 
and  control  of  the  army  and  navy. 

Adoption  of  the  Constitution. — The  next  step  was  to 
induce  the  states  to  adopt,  or  ratify,  the  Constitution: 
unless  nine  states  ratified,  it  would  not  become  law. 
Many  of  the  leading  men  of  the  country,  among  them 
Patrick  Henry,  opposed  it.  George  Mason,  who  had 
helped  to  make  it,  refused  to  sign,  and  went  back  to 
Virginia  to  lead  the  fight  against  it.  Each  state  elected 
a  convention  to  pass  on  the  new  federal  Constitution, 
and  the  battle  was  fought  out  in  these  conventions. 
One  by  one  the  conventions  ratified,  until  finally  the 
Virginia  convention  ratified,  though  by  a  small  majority. 
This  settled  the  fate  of  the  Constitution.  Two  states, 

237 


Rhode  Island  and  North  Carolina,  refused  to  ratify, 
but  when  they  found  themselves  alone  they,  likewise, 
came  into  the  fold.  The  government  of  the  United 
States  really  existed  at  last. 

George  Washington  President. — A  large  part  of  the 
American  people — perhaps  a  majority — opposed  the 
Constitution  at  the  beginning,  but  when  George  Wash- 
ington was  elected  President  they  placed  confidence  in 
the  new  government.  On  April  30,  1789,  Washington 
was  inaugurated  in  New  York  City,  the  first  capital  of 
the  federal  government.  The  seat  of  government  was 
soon  moved  to  Philadelphia,  and,  after  ten  years,  to 
Washington,  where  it  has  remained  ever  since. 

Powers  of  the  Federal  Government. — Under  the 
Constitution,  the  United  States  government  has  the  fol- 
lowing powers  which  cannot  be  exercised  by  the  indi- 
vidual states: 

To  declare  war. 

To  maintain  an  army  and  navy. 
To  coin  money. 
To  regulate  immigration. 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  between 
the  states. 

To  make  treaties  with  foreign  nations. 

To  grant  patents  and  copyrights. 

To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution. — The  Constitu- 
tion, though  it  is  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  has  been 
amended  a  number  of  times.  A  proposed  amendment 
must  be  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses  of 
Congress.  Then  it  must  be  approved  by  the  legis- 
latures of  three  fourths  of  the  states.  The  first  ten 
amendments,  passed  shortly  after  the  Constitution  had 

238 


been  ratified,  were  intended  to  secure  the  rights  of  the 
people  and  of  the  states  against  the  power  of  the  federal 
government.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  American 
Bill  of  Rights.  Among  other  things  these  first  amend- 
ments secured  the  right  of  trial  by  jury;  freedom  of 
speech  and  of  the  press;  freedom  of  religion;  the  right 
of  petition;  and  the  security  of  the  home.  The 
eleventh  amendment  defined  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  courts.  The  twelfth  amendment  changed 
the  mode  of  electing  the  President.  The  next  three 
amendments  came  as  a  result  of  the  War  between  the 
States.  The  thirteenth  abolished  slavery;  the  four- 
teenth made  the  negro  a  citizen;  and  the  fifteenth  for- 
bade the  states  to  deny  citizens  the  right  to  vote  on 
account  of  race  or  color.  Then  for  many  years  there 
were  no  more  amendments.  The  sixteenth  amendment 
gave  the  federal  government  the  right  to  levy  an  income 
tax.  The  seventeenth  changed  the  mode  of  choosing 
United  States  senators,  making  them  elective  by  the 
people.  The  eighteenth  forbade  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  alcoholic  drinks  in  the  United  States.  The  nine- 
teenth and  last  amendment  gave  women  the  right  to 
vote  in  elections. 

Secession. — One  right  that  the  states  were  believed 
by  many  people  to  have,  even  after  the  Constitution 
was  framed,  was  the  right  of  secession — that  is,  of  leav- 
ing the  Union  in  case  of  danger  from  the  federal  govern- 
ment. This  right  of  secession  was  expressly  proclaimed 
by  the  state  of  Virginia  when  it  ratified  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  it  was  not  disputed.  For  years  the  right  of 
secession  was  asserted  by  many  of  the  public  men  of 
the  country,  especially  of  New  England.  But  little  by 


little  the  powers  of  the  federal  government  were  ex- 
tended, principally  by  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  until  a  large  part  of  the 
country  came  to  deny  this  right  of  secession.  It  was 
still  asserted,  however,  by  the  Southern  states,  which, 
in  1861,  put  it  to  the  test  by  seeking  to  leave  the  Union. 
The  War  between  the  States  was  the  result.  The  South- 
ern states  were  forced  to  return  to  the  Union,  and  it  is 
now  recognized  as  a  principle  of  our  government  that 
no  state  has  the  right  to  leave  the  Union  under  any 
circumstances. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Be  able  to  tell  in  class  by  what  body  and  in  what  way  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  was  framed,  and  how  it  was  adopted. 

2.  Discuss  the  disagreement  among  the  delegates  to  the  convention 
over  the  degree  of  power  that  should  be  given  to  the  federal  government 
and  that  left  to  the  states. 

3.  Tell  what  difficulty  arose  in  later  years  because  the  degree  of  power 
left  to  the  states  was  not  fully  decided  by  the  Constitution. 

4.  Give  a  brief  statement  of  the  powers  of  the  federal  government  and 
tell  how  the  Constitution  is  amended 

5.  Give  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  nineteenth  amend- 
ments. 

6.  Memorize  the  preamble  of  the  Constitution.    (See  page  314.) 


240 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  PRESIDENT  AND  THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS 

Problems:  To  study  (1)  the  work  of  the  President;  and 
(2)  the  various  offices  of  the  executive  department. 

How  the  President  is  Chosen. — By  the  plan  for 
electing  the  President,  each  state  selects  a  certain 
number  of  delegates  who  meet  and  choose  the  President 
and  Vice  President.  These  men  are  called  presidential 
electors,  and  each  state  has  as  many  of  them  as  it  has 
Senators  and  Representatives:  the  entire  group  of 
electors  from  all  the  states  is  known  as  the  electoral 
college.  At  first  the  legislatures  appointed  the  electors 
because  they  doubted  the  wisdom  of  letting  the  people 
have  a  direct  part  in  the  election  of  such  an  important 
officer  as  the  President.  Soon,  however,  the  people 
were  permitted  to  vote  for  the  electors;  and  the  Presi- 
dent ever  since  has  been  really  elected  by  the  people. 
The  electoral  college  is  only  a  form. 

Process  of  Election. — Presidential  elections  are  held 
on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  Novem- 
ber of  each  year  divisible  by  four.  Each  political  party 
has  a  full  set  of  electors,  and  you  vote  for  those  repre- 
senting the  party  you  prefer.  The  electors  of  the  party 
which  receives  the  largest  number  oi  votes  meet  in  the 
state  capital  on  the  second  Monday  in  January  follow- 
ing the  election  and  cast  their  votes  for  the  candidates 
of  their  party.  They  send  a  record  of  their  votes  to  the 
president  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  On  the 

241 


second  Wednesday  in  February  following  the  presiden- 
tial election,  the  votes  of  the  electors  from  all  the  states 
are  counted  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington  in  the  pres- 
ence of  both  houses  of  Congress:  the  candidate  receiv- 
ing the  majority  of  votes  is  declared  elected.  You  may 
think  that  this  is  a  very  strange  way  of  electing  a  Pres- 
ident, but  you  must  remember  that  the  choice  is  really 
decided  by  the  votes  of  the  people  at  the  November 
election.  Ordinarily,  a  few  hours  after  the  election  closes 
everybody  in  the  country  knows  who  is  to  be  President. 

The  Presidential  Succession. — The  President,  as 
you  know,  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  If  he 
governs  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  he  may 
be  reflected  for  a  second  term.  Washington  and 
Jefferson  refused  a  third  term,  thereby  establishing  a 
kind  of  unwritten  law  that  no  President  shall  serve 
longer  than  two  terms.  Several  of  our  Presidents  have 
died  during  their  term  of  office.  When  this  happens, 
the  Vice  President  succeeds  to  the  presidency.  In 
1886,  Congress  passed  the  Presidential  Succession  Act, 
which  provides  that  in  case  of  the  death  of  both  Presi- 
dent and  Vice  President  the  cabinet  officers  shall  be- 
come President  in  the  following  order;  Secretary  of 
State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War, 
Attorney-General,  Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Inauguration  of  the  President. — The  inauguration 
of  the  President  occurs  on  March  4  following  the 
election,  and  is  an  interesting  event  to  the  United 
States.  Thousands  of  people  go  to  Washington  to  see 
the  ceremonies.  The  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  administers  the  oath  of  office,  which  is  as  follows: 

242 


I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best 
of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States. 

The  President  must  be  a  native-born  citizen,  and 
must  have  resided  in  the  United  States  fourteen  years, 
and  be  at  least  thirty-five  years  old.  His  salary  is 
$75,000  a  year. 

President's  Appointing  Power. — The  President  is 
the  chief  executive  of  the  nation.  He  sees  that  the 
laws  are  faithfully  carried  out,  sends  a  message  to  Con- 
gress in  which  he  recommends  legislation,  and  has  the 
power  to  call  extra  sessions  of  Congress.  He  appoints 
the  members  of  his  cabinet,  ministers  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  many  other  officials,  such  as  judges  of  the 
federal  courts  and  postmasters.  Except  in  the  case  of 
his  cabinet  members,  appointments  by  the  President 
must  be  approved  by  the  Senate.  The  President  also 
has  the  power  of  removing  for  good  cause  officers 
appointed  by  him  except  judges,  who  may  be  removed 
after  being  tried  and  convicted  of  misconduct. 

Civil  Service. — The  appointing  power  of  the  Presi- 
dent causes  him  a  deal  of  worry,  as  an  army  of  office- 
seekers  is  always  besieging  him  for  places.  There  was 
a  time  when  government  offices  were  considered  a 
reward  for  party  service,  and  with  each  change  in 
political  power  thousands  of  persons  lost  their  positions. 
In  1883  the  Civil  Service  Act  was  passed.  Under  this 
law  most  government  employees  stand  an  examination, 
and  when  appointed  they  cannot  be  removed  because 
of  political  opinions. 

President  as  Commander-in-Chief. — The  President 
243 


is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  and  as  such  must 
preserve  the  laws  of  the  United  States  in  all  the  states 
and  territories.  He  has  the  right  to  send  soldiers  into 
any  state  where  violence  is  interfering  with  the  mails. 
If  disorder  breaks  out  which  the  militia  cannot  quell, 
the  governor  of  the  state  may  call  upon  the  President 
for  military  assistance.  In  case  of  war,  the  control  of 
the  whole  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  country  is  in 
his  hands. 

Other  Presidential  Powers. — Another  power  pos- 
sessed by  the  President  is  that  of  making  treaties  with 
other  nations,  but  all  such  agreements  have  to  be  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate.  The  President  may  also  pardon 
persons  convicted  of  crimes  against  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  An  important  power  possessed  by  him 
is  that  of  vetoing  bills  passed  by  Congress.  When  this 
power  is  exercised  by  the  President,  as  is  frequently  the 
case,  he  returns  the  bill  to  Congress  with  his  objections. 
The  bill  may  be  passed  over  the  veto  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  Congress. 

The  President's  Cabinet. — Just  before  the  President 
is  inaugurated  he  appoints  his  cabinet  members,  who 
are  to  assist  him  in  carrying  on  the  weighty  affairs  of 
government.  Washington  had  only  four  members  in 
his  cabinet:  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  and  Attorney-General. 
But  the  work  of  the  government  has  grown  to  such  an 
extent  that  six  other  officers  have  been  added:  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce, and  Secretary  of  Labor.  Each  cabinet  officer 
is  the  head  of  one  of  the  departments  of  government, 

244 


and  frequently  advises  with  the  President  about  the 
work  for  which  he  is  responsible.  In  fact,  cabinet 
meetings  are  held  regularly  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing questions  concerning  the  welfare  of  the  country. 
At  these  meetings  important  decisions  are  made  as  to 
the  policy  of  the  government. 

Departments. — TKe  State  Department,  presided 
over  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  assists  the  President  in 
dealings  with  foreign  powers.  In  the  offices  of  thiS 
department  are  filed  the  treaties  of  the  United  States 
with  other  nations.  The  Treasury  Department  con- 
ducts the  loans  made  by  the  government,  such  as  the 
bond  issues,  and  supervises  the  collection  of  taxes.  It 
makes  the  money  for  the  country.  It  also  oversees 
the  national  bank  system  of  the  country,  and  performs 
other  services.  The  Department  of  Justice,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  the  Attorney-General,  prosecutes  those 
guilty  of  violating  the  federal  laws.  Many  of  the  suits 
brought  by  the  Department  of  Justice  have  been 
against  great  corporations,  or  trusts,  as  they  are  called, 
for  alleged  violations  of  the  federal  laws  against  mo- 
nopolies for  fixing  prices.  The  Department  of  the 
Interior  has  many  important  bureaus,  such  as  the 
Reclamation  Service,  Pension  Bureau,  Bureau  of 
Mines,  and  Bureau  of  Education.  Under  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  are:  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
the  Weather  Bureau,  and  other  important  govern- 
mental agencies.  The  Department  of  Commerce  takes 
the  census  every  ten  years,  registers  all  United  States 
merchant  ships,  maintains  lighthouses,  and  does  many 
other  things  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  commerce  of  the 

245 


United  States.  The  new  Department  of  Labor  gathers 
statistics  on  the  condition  of  laborers  and  tries  in  every 
possible  way  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  workers  of 
the  country.  There  has  been  recently  established  in 
this  department  the  Child's  Welfare  Bureau.  The  War 
Department  controls  the  army;  the  Navy  Department 
the  sea  forces.  The  Postal  Department  conducts  the 
post-office  system.  In  addition  to  the  ten  depart- 
ments there  are  a  number  of  special  boards  or  com- 
missions: the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  the 
Civil  Service  Commission,  the  Federal  Reserve  Board, 
and  others. 

Biggest  Business  in  the  World. — In  this  chapter  we 
have  taken  a  rapid  view  of  the  executive  work  of  our 
government.  Thousands  of  persons,  not  only  at  Wash- 
ington but  all  over  the  land  and  the  world,  are  working 
in  order  that  we  may  have  a  good  government.  In 
nearly  every  country  our  nation  has  ministers,  who 
represent  the  government,  and  consuls,  who  look  after 
our  trade  interests.  At  the  head  of  all  these  workers 
is  the  President  with  his  many  weighty  duties.  A 
study  of  this  chapter  should  teach  us  that  the  biggest 
business  in  the  world  is  that  of  the  United  States 
government. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

Why   is  the  President  called   "The   Chief   Executive  of  the 

Nation"? 
How  many  votes  has  the  electoral  college?    What  constitutes  a 

majority  of  these  votes? 
What    very    important    treaty    was    negotiated    by    President 

Wilson  and  what  action  did  the  Senate  take  upon  it? 
Which  of  the  Presidents  died  in  office? 

246 


2.  Compare  the  appointive  power  of  the  governor  of  your  state  with 
that  of  the  President. 

3.  Appoint  a  committee  to  collect  the  names  and  photographs  of  the 
cabinet  members  now  in  office  and  to  find  out  what  is  done  at  a  cabinet 
meeting. 

4.  Appoint  a  classmate  to  report  for  which  candidate  the  electoral 
votes  of  each  state  were  cast  in  the  last  presidential  election. 

5.  Explain  fully  how  a  treaty  is  made. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  Presidents  who  served  two  terms. 

7.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  minister  to  a  foreign  country?     What 
are  those  of  a  consul? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  Civil  Service  system. 


247 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK 

Problems:  To  learn  (1)  about  the  work  of  Congress; 
and  (2)  the  part  your  Congressmen  take  in  it. 

Why  Congress  Consists  of  Two  Bodies. — The  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  consists  of  two  houses  or 
bodies — the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
When  you  visit  the  Capitol  in  Washington  you  will  be 
shown  the  Senate  chamber  in  the  north  side  of  the 
great  building,  and  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  the  south  wing.  Why  do  we  have  two 
lawmaking  bodies?  At  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  the  legislatures  of  most  of  the  states  were  com- 
posed of  two  houses — an  idea  borrowed  from  the 
British  Parliament,  which  consists  of  the  House  of 
Lords  and  the  House"  of  Commons.  The  Continental 
Congress,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  single  chamber. 
Experience  shows  that  the  two-house  plan  is  the  better, 
for  under  this  system  each  house  serves  as  a  check  on 
the  other.  If  the  House  of  Representatives  passes  an 
objectionable  bill,  the  Senate  has  the  power  to  defeat 
or  amend  it.  In  this  way  there  is  less  chance  of 
passing  bad  laws  than  under  the  one-house  plan,  where 
a  bill  may  be  rushed  through  without  careful  consid- 
eration. 

Senate  More  Important. — Which  house  of  Congress 
is  the  more  important?  From  one  standpoint  they  are 
both  of  equal  rank,  for  no  bill  passed  by  one  house 

249 


becomes  a  law  until  it  is  also  passed  by  the  other.  The 
framers  of  the  Constitution  evidently  intended,  how- 
ever, that  the  Senate  should  be  a  more  dignified  and 
important  body  than  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
so  it  has  turned  out  in  actual  practice.  The  Senate  is 
a  smaller  body  than  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  members  are  usually  older,  and  as  a  rule  have  had 
more  experience  in  legislative  matters  than  Representa- 
tives. The  fact  that  the  Senate  confirms  appointments 
of  the  President  and  ratifies  treaties  with  foreign  nations 
adds  to  its  power  and  influence. 

The  Senate. — The  Senate  is  composed  of  ninety-six 
Senators,  two  from  each  state.  It  may  seem  strange  to 
you  that  the  state  of  Nevada,  with  a  population  of 
about  seventy  thousand,  should  have  the  same  number 
of  Senators  as  the  great  state  of  New  York,  with  more 
than  ten  million  people.  The  explanation  is  that  when 
the  Constitution  was  being  made  small  states  such  as 
Maryland  and  New  Jersey  refused  to  approve  it  unless 
they  were  given  equal  representation  in  the  Senate  with 
the  larger  states. 

Election  of  Senators. — The  Constitution  provides 
that  Senators  shall  be  elected  by  state  legislatures,  and 
this  was  done  until  1913,  when  the  Constitution  was 
amended  to  provide  for  their  election  by  the  people. 
Senators  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  six  years.  They  are 
not  all  elected  the  same  year.  The  terms  of  one  third 
expire  every  two  years,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  all 
Senators  to  be  new  to  their  office  at  any  one  time. 
When  a  Senator  dies,  the  governor  of  the  state  appoints 
a  successor  until  an  election  is  held.  The  yearly  salary 
of  both  Senators  and  Representatives  is  $7500.  The 

250 


Senate  has  equal  power  with  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  introducing  and  passing  laws,  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  all  bills  for  raising  money  must  be  introduced 
in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  House  of  Representatives. — In  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  the  First  Congress  there  sat  only 
sixty-five  men;  the  present  House  of  Representatives 
consists  of  four  hundred  and  thirty-five  members.  The 
reason  for  this  large  increase  is  that  the  number  of 


THE  NATIONAL  CAPITOL 

Representatives  depends  on  population,  which  is  con- 
tinually growing.  The  lower  house  has  become  so  large 
that  many  persons  think  the  number  should  not  be 
further  increased.  Some  states  have  only  one  or  two 
Representatives;  some,  thirty  or  forty.  Thus  we  see 
that  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  unlike  the  Senate, 
the  larger  states  have  much  greater  power  than  the 
smaller  ones. 

251 


Congressional  Districts. — The  term  of  a  Representa- 
tive is  two  years.  Each  state  is  divided  into  Congres- 
sional districts,  the  number  of  which  depends  upon  the 
population.  At  the  present  time  a  district  contains 
about  210,000  people.  When  a  Representative  dies  or 
resigns,  the  governor  of  the  state  orders  a  special  elec- 
tion to  choose  a  successor. 

The  Speaker. — The  presiding  officer  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  is  the  speaker.  The  speaker  possesses 
great .  influence.  He  decides  which  member  shall  be 
allowed  to  speak  when  several  desire  to  be  heard  and 
appoints  the  members  of  the  committees.  Among  the 
other  officers  of  the  House  are  the  clerk,  sergeant-at- 
arms,  and  chaplain.  The  clerk  keeps  a  record  of  all 
bills  introduced  and  passed  and  also  compiles  the  Con- 
gressional Record,  containing  the  speeches  made.  The 
sergeant-at-arms  preserves  order  in  the  House.  You 
would  think  that  the  members  of  Congress  would  always 
be  calm  and  dignified,  but  sometimes  in  the  heat  of 
argument  the  House  of  Representatives  is  thrown  into 
confusion,  and  it  is  then  necessary  for  the  sergeant-at- 
arms  "to  restore  order. 

Congressional  Committees. — You  saw  in  your  study 
of  city  and  state  governments  that  an  important  feature 
of  lawmaking  bodies  is  the  system  of  committees  to 
which  each  bill  is  referred.  Some  of  the  important  com- 
mittees of  Congress  are:  Ways  and  Means,  Appro- 
priations, Foreign  Relations,  Agriculture,  Rivers  and 
Harbors.  The  principal  work  of  a  Senator  or  Repre- 
sentative consists  in  attending  the  meetings  of  the 
committees  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

How  a  Law  is  Passed. — The  course  of  legislation  in 

252 


Congress  is  practically  the  same  as  in  a  state  legislature. 
A  member  introduces  a  bill.  Its  title  is  read,  after  which 
it  is  referred  to  the  proper  committee,  where  it  is  fully 
discussed.  If  the  committee  thinks  the  bill  ought  to 
become  a  law,  it  is  reported  back  to  the  house  with  the 
recommendation  that  it  pass.  It  is  then  read  in  full  and 
placed  on  the  calendar  with  hundreds  of  other  bills. 
Finally,  it  comes  up  for  the  third  reading  and  for 
debate  by  those  who  favor  and  oppose  it.  If  the 
bill  is  passed,  it  is  sent  to  the  other  house,  where  it 
takes  the  same  course.  If  the  bill  is  passed  by  both 
houses  of  Congress,  it  then  goes  to  the  President, 
who  may  dispose  of  it  in  any  one  of  the  following 
ways: 

1.  He  may  sign  it,  thereby  making  it  a  law. 

2.  He  may  keep  it  for  ten  days  without  signing  it, 
in  which  case  it  becomes  a  law  without  his  signature. 

3.  He  may  veto  the  bill — that  is,  return  it  to  Con- 
gress— with  a  statement  of  his  objections  to  it.  Congress 
may  pass  a  bill  over  the  President's  veto  by  a  vote  of 
two  thirds  of  its  members. 

How  Impeachments  Are  Tried. — When  the  Presi- 
dent, United  States  judges,  or  other  officers  of  the  gov- 
ernment are  guilty  of  treason  or  other  crimes,  they  may 
be  tried,  or  impeached,  as  it  is  called,  by  Congress.  In 
impeachment  trials,  the  House  of  Representatives 
makes  the  charges  against  the  person  on  trial,  and  the 
Senate  acts  as  the  judge  and  jury.  Impeachment  trials 
are  solemn  events,  Each  Senator  takes  an  oath  to 
judge  impartially;  the  person  on  trial  is  represented  by 
distinguished  lawyers;  the  testimony  is  heard,  and  the 
Senate  holds  a  secret  session  to  decide  the  guilt  or  inno- 

253 


cence  of  the  accused.  If  the  President  is  being  im- 
peached, the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  pre- 
sides over  the  Senate.  The  most  famous  impeachment 
case  was  that  of  President  Johnson  in  1868.  He  was 
acquitted  by.  one  vote. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

How  many  Congressional  districts  has  your  state? 

Who  is  your  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives? 

How  is  a  bill  passed  over  the  President's  veto? 

What  are  the  duties  of  the  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives? 

Can  a  member  of  Congress  be  arrested  for  a  crime?  (See 
Article  I,  Section  6,  of  the  Constitution.) 

2.  Refer  to  the  Constitution  and  find  the  qualifications  of  Senators 
and  Representatives. 

3.  Name  your  Senators.    Tell  what  offices  they  held  before  going  to 
the  Senate. 

4.  Bring  to  the  class  newspaper  clippings  telling  what  bills  are  being 
considered  in  Congress  at  the  present  time. 

5.  Refer  to  Section  8,  Article  I,  of  the  Constitution,  and  name  the 
powers  possessed  by  Congress. 


254 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
THE  FEDERAL  COURTS 

Problems :  (1)  To  learn  why  federal  courts  are  necessary; 
and  (2)  to  consider  some  of  the  cases  they  try. 

Why  Federal  Courts  Are  Necessary. — We  have 
studied  about  the  executive  and  legislative  branches  of 
our  national  government  and  now  come  to  the  third 
branch,  the  judicial.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have 
United  States  courts?  There  are  state  courts  in  every 
city  and  county.  If  a  man  commits  a  crime  such  as 
murder  or  theft  he  is  tried  in  these  courts;  or  if  one 
citizen  wishes  to  sue  another  at  law  he  brings  the  suit 
in  a  state  court.  A  little  thought,  however,  will  con- 
vince you  that  there  are  certain  civil  cases,  as  well  as 
crimes,  over  which  the  national  government  alone  has 
authority.  If  a  boat  collides  with  another,  the  owners 
of  the  damaged  vessel  must  bring  suit  in  a  United  States 
court,  since  the  federal  government  controls  navigation. 
If  a  man  is  charged  with  counterfeiting,  he  must  stand 
trial  in  a  federal  court,  because  the  states  have  no 
authority  over  the  making  of  money.  Then  there  are 
larger  questions,  such  as  the  meaning  of  treaties  and 
the  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  as  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land,  which  make  it  necessary  to  have  federal 
courts. 

The  Different  Federal  Courts. — The  Constitution 
provides  that  there  shall  be  one  Supreme  Court  and 
such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 

255 


establish.  Besides  the  Supreme  Court,  there  are  now 
about  thirty  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeal  and  about  a 
hundred  District  Courts,  and  a  number  of  special  courts. 
All  federal  judges  are  appointed  by  the  President,  sub- 
ject to  confirmation  by  the  Senate,  and  hold  office  for 
life  or  during  good  behavior.  Each  judicial  district  has 
a  United  States  marshal,  whose  duties  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  a  sheriff,  and  a  district  attorney, 
whose  duties  correspond  to  those  of  a  commonwealth's 
attorney  in  state  courts. 

The  Supreme  Court. — The  Supreme  Court  is  com- 
posed of  nine  justices  and  meets  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  It  is  the  highest  tribunal  in  the  land 
The  judges  are  clothed  in  black  gowns,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings are  solemn.  One  of  the  judges  is  called  the 
Chief  Justice,  and  his  office  is  considered  by  lawyers 
to  be  the  highest  and  most  honorable  of  the  legal 
profession.  The  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  are 
final,  because  there  is  no  higher  court  to  which  one 
may  go. 

Cases  Tried  in  the  Federal  Courts. — Many  wise 
lawyers  have  difficulty  in  deciding  at  times  whether  a 
case  should  be  tried  in  a  state  or  federal  court.  But 
there  are  certain  cases  that  clearly  belong  in  the  United 
States  courts.  If  an  ambassador,  for  instance,  is 
charged  with  an  offense  while  in  this  country,  he  has 
the  right  to  go  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  trial.  If  one 
state  wishes  to  bring  suit  against  another,  it  also  goes 
directly  to  the  highest  court  of  the  land.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  most  cases  tried  by  the 
Supreme  Court  come  up  on  appeal  from  lower  courts. 
Cases  are  often  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  on  the 

256 


ground  that  decisions  of  the  state  courts  which  tried 
them  violate  the  United  States  Constitution. 

Among  the  kinds  of  cases  tried  in  the  United  States 
District  Court  are  the  following: 

1.  When  the  citizen  of  one  state  is  suing  the  citizen  of 
another  for  a  sum  exceeding  $3000. 


CHIEF  JUSTICE  JOHN  MARSHALL 

2.  All  admiralty  cases — that  is,  law  suits  arising  over 
disputes  between  owners  of  vessels. 

3.  Proceedings  in  bankruptcy.     Under  the  bankruptcy 
law  a  person  who  has  failed  in  business  may  have  his  debts 
canceled,    provided    he    surrenders    his    property    for    the 
benefit  of  his  creditors.     The  Federal  government  passed 
this  law  to  enable  a  man  hopelessly  in  debt  to  make  a  new 
start  in  business. 

257 


4.  Proceedings    against    trusts    or    large    corporations 
charged  with  violating  the  Sherman  Act  passed  by  Congress 
to  prevent  large  corporations  from  controlling  the  prices 
of  the  necessities  of  life. 

5.  Criminal    cases    against    smugglers,     counterfeiters, 
moonshiners,  and  others  charged  with  violating  federal  laws. 
Persons  whom  the  federal  courts  sentence  to  imprisonment 
are  not   sent  to  state  penitentiaries,   but   are  confined   in 
federal  prisons.     One  of  the  largest  of  these  is  located  in 
Atlanta,  Georgia. 

6.  Crimes  of  all  kinds  committed  on  property  of  the 
United  States. 

The  cases  that  come  before  the  Circuit  Courts  of 
Appeal  are  appealed  to  it  from  the  District  Courts. 

Injunctions  and  Habeas  Corpus. — The  federal  courts, 
as  well  as  the  state  courts,  frequently  issue  injunctions 
and  writs  of  habeas  corpus.  Let  us  explain  briefly  what 
these  writs  are.  When  a  court  issues  a  writ  of  injunc- 
tion it  commands  a  person  not  to  do  a  certain  thing. 
To  illustrate — during  strikes,  federal  judges  sometimes 
order  strikers  not  to  place  pickets  around  factories  and 
railroad  yards  to  prevent  new  men  from  taking  their 
places.  In  some  cases  where  these  orders  have  been 
violated  the  labor  leaders  have  been  found  guilty  of 
"contempt  of  court,"  and  have  been  sentenced  to 
prison.  The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  intended  to  pro- 
tect the  liberty  of  a  person  unlawfully  imprisoned,  and 
originated  over  seven  hundred  years  ago  when  the 
English  people  wrung  from  King  John  the  Magna 
Carta.  Before  that  time  English  kings  had  imprisoned 
men  without  a  warrant  or  a  trial.  In  this  country,  if 
any  man  is  put  in  prison  without  a  warrant  charging 
him  with  a  crime,  his  friends  may  apply  to  a  court  for 
.a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  In  the  writ  the  judge  orders 

258 


the  sheriff  or  marshal  to  bring  the  body  of  the  prisoner 
before  him  in  order  that  he  may  determine  whether  or 
not  the  man  is  unlawfully  held  in  custody.  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  provides  that  "the  privi- 
lege of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it." 

Deciding  on  Constitutionality. — The  most  important 
function  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  to  decide  if  laws 
passed  by  Congress  are  in  accordance  with  the  Con- 
stitution. For  instance,  in  1894,  Congress  passed  an 
act  putting  a  tax  on  incomes.  The  Supreme  Court 
declared  this  law  to  be  unconstitutional,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  pass  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
before  the  federal  government  could  tax  the  incomes  of 
citizens. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

Where  is  the  nearest  federal  court  to  your  home  located? 

Who  was  the  first  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court? 

What  is  meant  by  the  statement  that  federal  judges  hold  office 

"for  life  or  during  good  behavior"? 
How  are  your  state  judges  selected? 

Can  you  think  of  any  objections  to  electing  judges  by  the  people? 
Why  is  the  Supreme  Court  composed  of  an  odd  number  of 

justices? 

2.  Bring  to  your  class  newspaper  clippings  telling  of  cases  tried  in 
federal  courts. 

3.  Give  a  brief  report  of  a  great  case  in  your  American  history  which 
was  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 


259 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

MONEY  AND  CREDIT 

Problems:  To  study  (1)  the  "medium  of  exchange"- 
and  (2)  the  banking  system. 

Goods  to  Exchange. — We  have  seen  that  everybody 
in  the  community  who  works  has  a  commodity  or  a 
service  to  sell  to  other  people  in  exchange  for  the  things 
he  needs.  Thus  the  farmer  raises  more  wheat  and  corn, 
pumpkins  and  watermelons,  eggs  and  chickens  than  he 
needs  himself.  The  surplus  product  of  his  farm  he 
exchanges  with  merchants  for  clothes,  shoes,  and  other 
articles,  for  medical  attention,  for  legal  services,  and  for 
various  needs.  In  the  same  way,  the  physician  gives 
his  professional  services  to  the  farmer  for  food,  to  the 
merchant  for  goods,  and  to  the  lawyer  for  legal  aid. 

Exchange  in  a  Primitive  Community. — In  a  primi- 
tive community  people  sell  their  goods  and  services  by 
what  is  called  barter — that  is,  the  farmer  pays  the  mer- 
chant for  a  suit  of  clothes  with  so  many  bushels  of 
wheat  or  so  many  dozens  of  eggs.  He  pays  the  physi- 
cian in  the  same  manner,  and  even  gives  his  share  to 
the  support  of  religion  in  farm  products.  But  this 
method  of  direct  exchange  is  difficult  and  time-wasting. 
It  is  not  always  possible  to  find  a  merchant  who  hap- 
pens to  want  foodstuffs  at  the  same  time  that  the  farmer 
wants  clothes  or  other  articles ;  and  it  takes  a  long  time 
to  determine  the  exact  number  of  bushels  that  a  suit 
of  clothes,  for  instance,  is  worth.  In  fact,  hundreds, 

260 


even  thousands,  of  years  ago  barter  was  found  to  be 
unsatisfactory,  and  another  method  of  exchange  was 
invented. 

The  Medium  of  Exchange. — The  problem  was  to 
find  some  one  thing  so  universally  desirable  that  every- 
body would  be  willing  to  give  goods  or  services  for  it 
at  any  time.  Thus  the  farmer  might  buy  with  his  food- 
stuffs this  medium  of  exchange  and  when  he  needed 
clothes  could  purchase  them  with  the  medium  instead 
of  with  farm  products.  Many  articles  have  served,  at 
different  times  and  in  different  countries,  as  mediums 
of  exchange. 

Various  Mediums.  —  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  in  their  early  history,  used  cattle  as  a  medium 
of  exchange.  The  Norwegians  had  wheat  as  their 
medium;  the  Britons,  tin;  the  Russians,  tea;  the 
American  Indians,  strings  of  shells  called  wampum ;  the 
New  England  colonists,  beaver  skins;  the  colonial  Vir- 
ginia planters,  tobacco;  and  in  many  parts  of  Africa  to 
this  day  salt  is  the  medium  of  exchange.  Why  was  it 
that  these  various  products  were  found  so  unsatis- 
factory as  mediums  of  exchange  that  people  no  longer 
use  them?  For  a  number  of  reasons.  Take  cattle,  for 
instance.  To  pay  for  an  article  with  a  certain  number 
of  cattle,  say  five,  would  not  do  very  well,  for  cattle 
differ  so  much  in  size  and  worth  that  five  cattle  might 
mean  a  considerable  value  or  almost  no  value  at  all. 
Then,  again,  if  one  wished  to  buy  an  article  of  small 
value  cattle  could  not  be  used.  Take  tobacco,  for  an- 
other instance.  When  a  large  tobacco  crop  was  raised 
in  Virginia,  its  value  lessened  so  greatly  that  many 
hundredweight  of  it  were  required  to  buy  any  article 

261 


of  consequence.  On  the  other  hand,  in  case  of  a  crop 
failure  the  value  of  tobacco  rose  so  high  that  a  certain 
weight  of  it  purchased  two  or  three  times  the  amount 
of  goods  the  same  weight  purchased  when  tobacco  was 
plentiful.  This  constant  change,  or  fluctuation,  in  the 
value  of  tobacco  made  it  a  bad  medium  of  exchange. 
There  was  another  objection  to  its  use  for  this  purpose: 
it  was  so  bulky  that  it  was  hard  to  carry  from  place  to 
place  to  use  in  making  purchases.  Yet  this  difficulty 
was  overcome — can  you  guess  how?  Well,  the  tobacco 
was  carried  to  the  nearest  public  warehouse  and  exam- 
ined; the  inspector  then  gave  the  owner  a  receipt  for 
it,  called  a  "tobacco  note."  The  owner,  in  buying 
goods  somewhere  else,  made  over  this  tobacco  note  to 
the  seller  instead  of  carrying  him  the  tobacco;  and  the 
person  holding  the  tobacco  note  sold  it  to  some  ship 
captain  seeking  a  cargo  at  the  warehouse  where  the 
tobacco  was  stored.  In  this  roundabout  way  tobaceo 
was  used  as  a  medium  of  exchange  all  through  the 
colonial  period. 

Coined  Money. — The  experience  of  thousands  of 
years  has  taught  mankind  that  the  best  medium  of 
exchange  is  metallic  money.  Silver  and  gold  are  the 
metals  now  used  for  money  nearly  the  world  over. 
Why  is  this?  Because  silver  and  gold  are  beautiful 
metals  and  desirable  apart  from  their  employment  as 
money.  Furthermore,  they  are  much  scarcer  than  other 
metals,  such  as  copper  and  iron,  and  therefore  more 
valuable.  For  a  long  period  both  gold  and  silver  were 
standard  money — that  is,  all  other  articles  were  meas- 
ured by  their  value  both  in  gold  and  silver.  A  gold 
dollar  had  a  dollar's  worth  of  gold  in  it,  and  a  silver 

262 


dollar  had  a  dollar's  worth  of  silver.  But  as  silver 
grew  to  be  far  more  plentiful  than  gold,  its  value  went 
down  until  there  was  less  than  a  dollar's  worth  of  silver 
in  a  coined  silver  dollar.  It  was  impossible  indeed  to 
put  a  full  dollar's  worth  of  silver  in  a  dollar  because  the 
coin  would  be  too  large,  and  besides,  the  value  of  silver 
changed  or  fluctuated  rapidly,  though  with  a  constant 
downward  tendency.  The  result  was  that  most  of  the 
governments  of  the  world,  including  the  United  States, 
have  made  gold  the  single  standard  money.  People 
accept  silver  dollars  without  fear,  because  they  know 
that  the  government  will  redeem  them  in  gold  dollars, 
if  need  be,  though  the  silver  dollars  themselves  do  not 
contain  a  full  dollar's  worth  of  silver. 

Paper  Money. — Both  gold  and  silver  money  are 
rather  heavy  and  bulky  in  large  amounts.  For  this  and 
other  reasons,  governments  issue  paper  money,  which 
consists  of  the  government's  promise  to  redeem  paper 
bills  in  metallic  money  if  called  on.  So  long  as  the 
credit  of  the  government  is  good,  people  do  not  wish  to 
exchange  the  paper  money  for  gold  or  silver,  because  of 
the  convenience  of  paper;  but  if  the  credit  of  the  gov- 
ernment declines  the  paper  money  goes  down  in  value. 
Thus  in  the  War  between  the  States,  the  paper  money 
put  out  by  the  Confederate  government  declined  almost 
to  worthlessness  in  the  last  part  of  the  war  when  people 
saw  that  the  South  would  probably  fail  to  gain  its  inde- 
pendence and  so  be  unable  to  redeem  its  paper  money 
in  gold  or  silver.  At  the  same  time,  the  paper  money 
of  the  United  States  fell  to  about  half  the  value  of 
gold,  as  people  realized  that  years  must  pass  before  it 
could  be  redeemed  in  metallic  money.  In  Russia  at 

263 


the  present  time  many  people  will  not  accept  the  paper 
money  of  the  Bolshevik  government  because  such 
immense  amounts  of  it  have  been  issued  that  every- 
body knows  that  it  will  never  be  redeemed  in  metallic 
money.  Consequently  the  people  of  Russia  have  gone 
back  to  barter  for  want  of  a  reliable  money  or  medium 
of  exchange. 

Credit. — We  have  spoken  of  the  "credit  of  the  gov- 
ernment." Credit  means  faith  in  the  intention  and 
ability  of  a  borrower  or  purchaser  to  pay  a  debt  at  some 
date  in  the  future.  Most  business  is  based  on  credit: 
if  it  were  not  for  credit,  no  large  business  ventures 
would  be  possible,  because  business  men  are  not  able 
to  keep  great  sums  of  money  on  hand  at  all  times. 
Much  of  retail  trade  is  conducted  on  credit.  Often  a 
buyer  gives  the  seller  a  demand  on  a  bank  for  the 
purchase  money,  which  demand,  written  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  we  call  a  check.  A  check,  however,  hardly 
comes  under  the  name  of  credit,  as  it  is  usually  sent 
to  the  bank  on  its  receipt,  and  the  money  for  which  it 
calls  is  either  immediately  paid  to  the  holder  or  added 
to  his  account. 

Banking. — For  many  centuries  there  were  no  recog- 
nized institutions  where  people  could  borrow  money 
when  they  needed  it.  In  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  Jews  took  the  place  of  the  bankers  of  the  present 
day:  they  loaned  money,  but  as  they  took  great  risks 
in  lending  it,  in  a  period  when  law  was  feeble,  they 
charged  a  high  rate  of  interest.  Besides,  they  frequently 
had  no  regular  places  of  business.  A  better  system  was 
needed,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period,  . 
soon  after  the  discovery  of  America,  regular  places  for 

£65 


keeping  and  lending  money  sprang  tip.  We  call  them 
banks.  The  first  bankers  were  goldsmiths,  to  whom 
money  was  carried  to  be  kept  because  they  had  large 
and  heavy  iron  boxes  in  which  they  stored  their  gold 
and  jewels.  They  were  the  successors  of  the  Jews  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Gradually  the  business  of  keeping 
money  and  lending  it  at  interest  was  separated  from 
the  jewelry  business,  and  banks  as  we  know  them 
came  into  existence. 

Functions  of  Banks. — The  importance  of  banks  has 
steadily  grown  with  the  development  of  business  and 
industry,  until  at  the  present  time  they  are  necessary 
to  our  civilization.  They  are  the  sole  places  for  storing 
money,  because  people  nowadays  almost  never  keep 
large  sums  of  money  in  their  homes  and  places  of  busi- 
ness: nearly  all  business  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
checks.  Many  banks,  called  savings  banks,  pay 
depositors  three  per  cent  (sometimes  four)  interest  on 
the  money  they  put  on  deposit,  which  is  loaned  out  by 
the  banks  at  six  per  cent.  The  banks  lend  money  to 
business  men  on  their  notes,  or  promises  to  pay  back 
at  a  certain  time  with  interest;  to  purchasers  of  real 
estate,  with  the  real  estate  itself  as  security  for  pay- 
ment of  the  loan,  and  in  other  ways.  They  also  issue 
paper  money,  called  bank  notes. 

United  States  Banks. — There  are  several  kinds  of 
banks — United  States  banks,  state  banks,  and  private 
banks.  United  States  banks  are  called  national  banks, 
and  are  under  the  control  and  supervision  of  the  United 
States  government.  In  1913  the  national  banking  sys- 
tem was  greatly  extended  by  the  establishment  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  System.  By  this  the  country  is 

266 


divided  into  twelve  districts,  with  a  Federal  Reserve 
bank  in  the  central  city  in  each  district:  Richmond, 
Atlanta,  and  Dallas  are  among  these  centers.  All 
national  and  many  state  banks  are  members  of  the 
system.  The  Federal  Reserve  banks  issue  paper  money 
based  on  property  held  by  the  banks:  'these  notes 
members  of  the  system  put  out  as  needed.  In  recent 
years  the  United  States  government  has  established  a 
number  of  land  banks  to  lend  money  to  farmers.  These 
last  banks  are  of  great  value  to  farmers,  who  have 
hitherto  had  trouble  in  borrowing  money.  The  busi- 
ness soundness  of  the  country  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
people  are  dependent,  in  no  small  measure,  on  the  bank- 
ing system,  which  is  one  of  the  features  of  modern  life. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

How  did  people  first  exchange  their  products  with  each  other? 

What  are  some  of  the  objections  to  this  method? 
What  are  some  things  that  have  been  used  as  "mediums  of 

exchange"? 
What  are  the  principal  metals  used  for  money?      What  other 

metals  are  used  for  smaller  money? 

Why  has  gold  been  selected  as  the  "single  standard"  money? 
What  is  a  check?    A  note? 

2.  Give  a  description  of  the  rise  of  banks. 

3.  Describe  a  modern  bank. 

4.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  Federal  Reserve  banking  system. 


267 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

HOW  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  RAISES  REVENUE 

Problems:  (1)  To  ascertain  what  our  national  expenses 
are;  and  (2)  to  find  out  how  revenue  is  raised  to  meet  these 
expenses. 

The  Expenses  of  the  National  Government. — Did 
you  ever  stop  to  consider  how  much  money  is  needed 
to  run  the  United  States  government?  Thousands  of 
government  officials  and  employees  are  paid  by  Uncle 
Sam;  ambassadors  are  sent  to  foreign  countries;  post 
offices,  forts,  and  battleships  must  be  built;  the  army 
is  supported;  interest  must  be  paid  on  the  public  debt; 
and  in  hundreds  of  other  ways  the  government  is  called 
upon  to  expend  large  sums.  At  the  present  time  it 
costs  the  United  States  several  billion  dollars  a  year  to 
run  its  government.  The  members  of  your  class  could 
not  count  such  a  vast  sum  of  money  in  a  dozen  life- 
times, even  if  it  were  in  ten-dollar  gold  coins.  Let  us 
consider  how  the  government  raises  the  money  it  needs. 
It  has  three  main  sources  of  revenue:  the  tariff;  reve- 
nue taxes;  the  income  tax. 

Tariff. — The  Constitution  provides  that  the  federal 
government  alone  may  levy  a  tax  on  imports.  The 
states  raise  the  funds  they  need  mainly  by  taxing  real 
estate  and  personal  property.  The  founders  of  the  gov- 
ernment knew  that  it  would  not  do  for  the  federal  gov- 
ernment to  tax  these  forms  of  property  also,  so  they 
decided  to  raise  revenue  mainly  by  means  of  a  tax  on 


imported  goods.  A  tariff  is  an  excellent  form  of  tax- 
ation in  so  far  that  the  average  person  never  realizes 
that  he  is  paying  it.  When  you  buy  a  piece  of  ribbon 
imported  from  France,  you  think  you  are  paying  the 
merchant  what  it  costs  to  make  the  ribbon  plus  a 
profit,  but  you  are  really  paying  much  more:  a  part  of 
its  price  has  already  been  paid  by  the  importer  to  Uncle 
Sam  as  a  duty  and  is  added  to  the  original  cost  of  the 
ribbon.  In  your  history  class  you  have  seen  that  the 
tariff  question  has  been  an  issue  in  many  national  elec- 
tions. Some  people  believe  in  a  tariff  for  revenue  only, 
while  others  favor  a  tariff  that  will  protect  American- 
made  goods  against  foreign  competition.  By  making 
the  tariff  very  high,  foreign  goods  are  brought  into  the 
country  under  a  heavy  disadvantage  or  are  kept  out 
altogether. 

Internal  Revenue. — You  know  the  meaning  of  the 
word  internal.  As  applied  to  revenue,  it  refers  to  the 
money  raised  by  the  federal  government  through  taxes 
on  certain  articles  produced  within  our  country.  No 
doubt  you  have  often  seen  government  stamps  on  ciga- 
rette and  cigar  boxes.  Many  a  battleship  has  been  built 
with  the  money  paid  for  these  little  stamps.  Each  gal- 
lon of  alcoholic  liquors  is  also  heavily  taxed  by  Uncle 
Sam.  However,  since  it  is  now  unlawful  to  manu- 
facture or  sell  intoxicating  liquors  as  beverages,  little 
revenue  comes  from  this  source. 

Paying  for  a  War. — In  1916  the  national  debt  was 
little  more  than  one  billion  dollars;  it  is  now  nearly 
twenty -three  billions.  Most  of  this  huge  debt  was 
created  during  the  World  War.  This  is  an  illustration 
of  the  fact  that  war  not  only  kills  off  thousands  of  men, 

269 


but  leaves  tremendous  financial  burdens  for  future  gen- 
erations to  bear.  In  war  times  the  ordinary  methods 
of  taxation  do  not  produce  sufficient  funds  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  government,  and  special  means  of  raising 
money  must  be  devised.  This  is  usually  accomplished 
by  special  taxes,  such  as  taxes  on  chewing  gum,  theater 
tickets,  and  other  luxuries;  on  business  profits;  on  in- 
comes; and  by  loans,  or  bond  issues.  The  Liberty 
Loan  was  the  great  bond  issue  of  the  World  War. 

Income  Taxes. — The  largest  source  of  revenue  is  the 
income  tax.  This  tax  is  levied  on  all  incomes  above  a 
certain  amount,  but  large  incomes  pay  a  much  heavier 
rate  than  small  ones.  Much  money  is  also  obtained 
from  a  tax  on  estates  when  they  are  inherited  by  heirs 
at  the  death  of  the  owner. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Answer  these  questions: 

What  is  a  custom  house?     Smuggling? 

What  does  one  mean  by  "a  moonshiner"? 

What  taxes,  if  any,  have  you  ever  paid  to  Uncle  Sam? 

Whom  would  you  consider  a  "slacker"  in  the  matter  of  taxation? 

2.  Explain  how  you  help  the  government  when  you  buy  War  Saving 
Stamps;  also  how  you  help  yourself. 

3.  Appoint  some  one  to  bring  a  Liberty  Bond  to  class  for  the  purpose 
of  reading  the  exact  words  it  contains.     Examine  carefully  the  interest 
coupons. 

4.  Tell  what  is  meant  by  an  income  tax.     Men  whose  income  is,  let 
us  say,  $500,000  a  year  pay  a  much  larger  income  tax  rate  than  men  who 
make  $4,000.    Give  some  reasons  for  this. 


270 


CHAPTER  XL 
POLITICAL  PARTIES 

Problems:  (1)  To  learn  the  history  of  the  great  political 
parties;  and  (2)  to  find  out  how  they  work. 

Why  We  Have  Political  Parties.— Your  father  is 
probably  either  a  Democrat  or  a  Republican.  That  is, 
he  is  a  member  of  one  of  the  two  great  parties  which 
contend  for  the  control  of  the  federal  and  state  govern- 
ments. Why  do  we  have  these  parties?  The  answer  is 
that  in  a  country  governed  by  the  people  it  is  necessary 
to  have  some  method  of  expressing  differences  of 
opinion.  So  the  people  who  think  one  way  about  polit- 
ical matters  form  one  party,  and  the  people  who  think 
another  way  form  another  party.  Each  party  presents 
its  platform,  or  statement  of  principles,  on  the  eve  of 
an  election,  and  the  voters  decide  between  them.  The 
party  that  wins  in  the  election  rules  the  country  accord- 
ing to  its  principles  until  the  next  election,  when  the 
voters  have  an  opportunity  to  change  to  another  party 
if  they  so  desire. 

Early  Parties. — The  first  parties  in  the  United 
States  were  the  Federalists,  who  favored  the  ratification 
of  the  Constitution  in  1788,  and  the  Anti-Federalists, 
who  opposed  it.  The  Constitution  was  ratified,  and  the 
Anti-Federalist  party  went  out  of  existence.  It  was 
succeeded  some  years  later  by  the  Democratic-Repub- 
lican party,  organized  by  Thomas  Jefferson.  The 
Federalists  had  come,  by  this  time,  to  believe  in  a 

271 


strong  central  government  which  should  override  the 
states.  The  Democratic-Republicans,  on  the  other 
hand,  believed  in  maintaining  the  full  rights  of  the 
individual  states — that  is,  of  strong  local  government. 
They  also  wished  to  give  a  large  share  of  power  to  the 
mass  of  the  people.  In  the  election  of  1800,  Jefferson 
and  Burr,  the  candidates  of  the  Democratic-Repub- 
licans, were  successful.  Some  years  later,  in  1812,  the 
United  States  went  to  war  with  England  over  its  rights 
on  the  sea.  The  Federalists  opposed  this  war,  and 
made  themselves  so  unpopular  that  their  party  came 
to  an  end. 

Later  Parties.— From  1818  to  1832  there  was  only 
one  party  in  the  country,  the  Democratic-Republican, 
or  Democratic,  as  it  later  came  to  be  called.  In  1832 
Henry  Clay  founded  a  new  party,  the  Whig,  which 
resembled  the  old  Federalist  party  in  advocating  a 
strong  federal  government  at  the  expense  of  the  rights 
of  the  states.  These  two  parties  opposed  each  other 
until  1852:  the  Democrats  were  successful  in  all  but 
two  presidential  elections.  In  the  latter  year  the  Whig 
party  went  to  pieces,  only  to  be  succeeded  a  little  later 
by  another  party,  the  Republican,  which  likewise 
favored  a  strong  central  government.  The  chief  issue 
in  politics  now  came  to  be  the  slavery  question.  The 
Democratic  party  opposed  interference  with  slavery: 
the  Republican  party  desired  to  break  it  up.  In  1860 
the  Republican  party,  with  Abraham  Lincoln  as  its 
presidential  candidate,  carried  the  election.  The 
Southern  states  seceded,  and  the  War  between  the 
States  followed.  After  the  war  the  Republicans  con- 
tinued in  power  for  many  years.  In  1884,  however, 

272 


Grover  Cleveland,  a  Democrat,  was  chosen  President, 
and  since  that  time  the  Democrats  have  won  three 
presidential  elections.  Besides  these  great  parties,  the 
principal  parties  have  been  the  Know-Nothing  party  of 
1850-1858;  the  Greenback  party  of  1875-1880,  which 
advocated  the  issue  of  unlimited  paper  currency  by  the 
government;  the  Populist  party,  which  supported  the 
free  coinage  of  silver;  the  Progressive  party,  which  split 
from  the  Republican  party  and  then  went  back  to  it; 
and  the  present  Farmer-Labor  party.  Still  others  are 
the  Socialist  and  Socialist-Labor  parties. 

Party  Conventions. — Presidential  candidates  are 
chosen  by  nominating  conventions.  For  months  before 
a  presidential  election  the  different  parties  lay  plans  for 
success  at  the  polls.  The  first  step  is  the  holding  of 
state  conventions  to  elect  delegates  to  the  national  con- 
ventions of  the  parties.  In  some  states,  presidential 
candidates  are  voted  for  in  primaries,  although  the 
primary  election  as  employed  in  selecting  presidential 
candidates  is  not  a  success  as  yet.  When  the  delegates 
are  chosen — the  number  for  each  state  is  decided  by  the 
party  managers,  ordinarily  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  voters — they  go  to  the  national  convention,  which  is 
usually  held  in  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  or  some  other  cen- 
trally located  large  city.  The  streets  of  the  city  are 
hung  with  flags,  and  the  delegates  parade  behind  bands 
on  their  way  to  hotels  and  the  convention  auditorium. 
An  air  of  intense  excitement  pervades  the  city  and, 
indeed,  the  whole  country.  The  convention  is  held  in  a 
hall  capable  of  seating  thousands  of  people.  The  first 
important  event  is  the  adoption  of  a  platform.  A  com- 
mittee draws  up  the  platform,  which  is  brought  before 

273 


the  convention  and  adopted.  Next  c^^cs  the  nomina- 
tion of  a  candidate  for  President.  One  noted  man  after 
another  is  offered  to  the  convention  in  speeches  that 
excite  the  enthusiasm  of  the  delegates.  When  all  the 
candidates  have  been  brought  forward,  the  delegates 
vote  by  states.  The  voting  continues  until  some  man 
is  chosen.  In  the  Republican  convention,  a  bare 
majority  of  delegates  select  the  candidate,  but  in  a 
Democratic  convention  a  two-thirds  majority  is  neces- 
sary. After  a  candidate  for  President  has  been  nomi- 
nated, a  vice  presidential  candidate  is  chosen  in  the 
same  way.  Then  the  convention  breaks  up. 

Campaign  and  Election. — A  great  political  party 
spends  millions  of  dollars  in  presenting  its  candidate  to 
the  people;  this  presentation  is  called  the  campaign. 
Headquarters  are  opened,  with  hundreds  of  clerks  and 
stenographers;  speakers  are  employed;  literature  is 
sent  through  the  mails,  and  advertisements  are  dis- 
played. Election  day  arrives  at  last.  There  is  great 
excitement  throughout  the  country  when  the  voters  go 
to  the  polls.  When  night  falls  and  the  polls  are  closed, 
the  excitement  grows  intense.  In  the  large  cities  the 
newspapers  flash  searchlights  of  different  colors  as  soon 
as  the  election  returns  begin  to  come  in,  to  show  which 
candidate  is  leading.  When,  at  last,  it  is  known  who  is 
elected,  the  enthusiasm  reaches  a  high  pitch.  In  the 
presidential  election  of  1920  more  than  26,000,000 
votes  were  cast.  This  was  the  first  presidential  election 
in  which  women"  voted  in  all  the  states. 

Inauguration. — On  March  4  following  the  election, 
the  newly  elected  President  is  put  in  his  office.  He 
announces  the  members  of  his  cabinet  on  the  eve  of  the 

274 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

(275)  VOTING  BY  MACHINE 


inauguration.  He  goes  to  the  White  House  on  the 
morning  of  March  4  and  rides  therefrom  to  the  Capitol, 
usually  at  the  head  of  a  great  procession.  At  the 
Capitol  he  takes  the  oath  of  office  and  returns  to  the 
White  House.  Here  he  meets  his  cabinet  for  the  first 
time,  and  by  the  evening  of  the  same  day  one  party 
has  gone  out  of  power  and  another  has  come  in.  This 
peaceful  change  of  government,  in  obedience  to  the  will 
of  the  people,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples 
of  political  soundness  the  world  has  ever  seen.  In 
many  countries  the  party  in  power  holds  a  nominal 
election  and  counts  the  votes  to  suit  itself.  The  weaker 
party  then  takes  up  arms,  and  a  war  follows.  But  in 
the  United  States  the  people  cheerfully  abide  by  the 
decision  of  the  majority,  and  the  outgoing  President 
politely  greets  the  incoming  President  and  often  rides 
with  him  to  the  Capitol,  though  the  two  men  may  have 
been  opposing  candidates  in  the  preceding  election. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Name  the  political  parties  that  put  forward  candidates  in  the  last 
presidential  campaign. 

2.  Appoint  a  classmate  to  report  on  the  tariff  plank  in  both  the  Repub- 
lican and  Democratic  platforms  in  the  last  election. 

3.  Give  the  qualifications  of  a  voter  in  your  state  and  find  out  where  is 
the  nearest  voting-place  to  your  school. 

4.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  corrupt  election. 

5.  In  many  states  candidates  who  run  for  ofBce  are  required  to  file  a 
sworn  statement  setting  forth  all  money  expended  by  them  in  the  election. 
Why  is  this  required? 

6.  Tell  what  you  understand  is  meant  by  a  political  "boss." 

7.  Debate:    Resolved,  That  every  voter  should  belong  to  a  political 
party. 


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CHAPTER  XLI 

NATURALIZATION 

Problems:  To  learn  (1)  what  is  meant  by  "Naturaliza- 
tion"; and  (2)  how  a  foreigner  becomes  naturalized. 

Ellis  Island. — If  you  should  go  to  Ellis  Island,  in 
New  York  harbor,  you  would  witness  a  singular  sight. 
Ellis  Island  is  the  place  where  foreigners  land  and  are 
examined  before  being  admitted  to  America.  There 
you  would  see  people  from  every  country  in  Europe  and 
from  some  countries  of  Asia.  Most  of  them  are  poor 
peasants.  In  many  cases  the  women  carry  all  the 
belongings  of  the  family  tied  up  in  great  bundles,  for 
immigrants  seldom  have  trunks  and  bags.  Some  of  the 
immigrants  wear  the  peasant  costumes  of  southern  and 
eastern  Europe.  In  a  majority  of  instances  the  family 
consists  of  mother,  father,  and  children.  Very  seldom 
do  the  newcomers  speak  English:  within  the  radius  of 
a  few  yards  you  might  hear  half  a  dozen  languages. 
You  would  be  interested  in  the  children.  They  are 
bright-eyed  and  eager,  but  frequently  dirty,  for  all  for- 
eigners are  not  accustomed  to  American  cleanliness. 

Restriction  of  Immigration. — By  the  law  of  1920  the 
various  countries  of  the  world  are  allowed  to  send  only 
a  certain  number  of  immigrants  to  America  each  year. 
This  is  done  to  prevent  the  country  from  being  swamped 
by,  millions  of  people  from  the  war-wasted  lands  of 
Europe,  who  could  not  find  work  here  and  who  would 
have  to  be  supported  by  the  United  States.  For  years 

277 


past  immigrants  have  been  compelled  to  undergo  a 
medical  examination  before  admission,  and  those  suffer- 
ing from  certain  diseases  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
-country.  Immigrants  are  also  required  to  have  a  small 
amount  of  money,  to  show  that  they  are  not  paupers 
seeking  a  land  in  which  to  live  without  work. 

Causes  of  Immigration. — All  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  except  Indians,  are  immigrants  or  de- 
scendants of  immigrants.  The  first  Americans  came 
three  centuries  ago  and  for  various  reasons.  They  left 
Europe  partly  for  religious  and  political  liberty,  but  for 
the  most  part,  as  people  do  today,  to  improve  their  lot 
in  life.  For  the  last  half  century  the  immigrants  have 
come  largely  from  backward  and  oppressed  lands;  in 
most  cases  they  have  sought  to  make  a  better  living 
than  was  possible  at  home.  Many  thousands  of  Rus- 
sian Jews,  however,  came  to  this  country  to  escape  per- 
secution. Another  cause  of  immigration  has  been  mili- 
tary service  in  European  countries.  Until  recently 
able-bodied  young  men  in  all  the  lands  of  continental 
Europe  were  required  to  pass  two  or  three  years  in  the 
army.  Thousands  of  boys  who  did  not  wish  to  go 
through  this  long  and  severe  military  training  and  lose 
several  years  from  their  work  came  to  America.  An- 
other cause  that  has  brought  many  fairly  prosperous 
people  to  the  United  States  has  been  the  larger  oppor- 
tunities it  offers :  business  men  in  England  particularly 
move  to  America  for  this  reason.  All  of  these  causes, 
working  together,  have  drawn  to  this  country  millions 
of  people,  and  the  population  has  grown  by  leaps  and 
bounds. 

Character  of  Immigrants. — The  people  who  colonized 

278 


America  were  mainly  Englishmen,  together  with  Scotch, 
Scotch-Irish,  Dutch,  Germans,  and  French.  The  Eng- 
lish, being  a  large  majority,  gave  the  country  an  English 
flavor,  but  the  people  of  other  blood  also  did  much  to 
make  America  what  it  is.  When  America  threw  off  the 
yoke  of  England  and  became  an  independent  republic, 
the  Americans  were  so  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  free- 
dom and  so  full  of  sympathy  with  the  downtrodden 
people  of  Europe  that  they  made  the  land  the  "asylum 
of  the  oppressed"  and  welcomed  all  comers  to  our 
shores.  The  immigrants  were  glad  to  come  and  proud 
to  be  American  citizens:  they  upheld  our  institutions 
enthusiastically.  But  late  in  the  nineteenth  century 
another  class  of  immigrants  began  to  come  to  America- 
people  who  thought  that  property  should  be  in  common 
and  even  that  there  should  be  no  government  at  all. 
Some  of  these  latter  immigrants  have  sought  to  under- 
mine our  country  by  awakening  discontent,  declaring 
that  the  people  do  not  have  their  full  rights.  They  do 
not  value  the  chance  to  make  a  living  in  a  free  and  happy 
country  that  America  offers:  usually  they  wish  to  live 
without  work  and  at  the  expense  of  other  people.  It 
is  only  just  to  say,  however,  that  immigrants  of  this 
sort  are  not  numerous.  The  great  majority  of  present- 
day  immigrants,  like  those  of  the  past,  welcome  the 
chance  to  live  in  the  United  States,  and  the  number  of 
newcomers  who  ask  entrance  to  this  country  is  fully  as 
large  as  the  law  provides  for. 

Danger  from  the  Immigrants. — Some  of  these  immi- 
grants bring  a  danger  to  America,  and  that  is  ignorance 
of  our  methods  of  government.  Many  of  them  come 
from  countries  where  the  people  in  the  past  have  had 

279 


little  or  no  voice  in  the  government.  They  did  not  vote 
for  their  king,  because  kings  are  not  elected.  The  laws 
were  made  for  them,  not  by  them.  It  is  difficult  for 
these  immigrants,  then,  to  learn  that  they  have  a  voice 
in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  if  they  become 
citizens,  and  that  a  part  of  the  responsibility  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  theirs.  When  they  become  citizens,  in  the 
large  cities  they  sometimes  vote  according  to  the  dic- 
tation of  some  "boss"  and  without  much  idea  as  to 
what  they  vote  for.  This  makes  it  possible  for  corrupt 
political  "machines"  to  stay  in  power  and  misrule  some 
of  our  greatest  cities.  A  movement  is  now  under  way 
in  all  parts  of  the  land  to  Americanize  foreign-born 
citizens  of  recent  arrival  and  teach  them  their  duty 
to  the  country  of  which  they  are  now  a  part.  In 
recent  years  many  of  them  have  become  thoroughly 
Americanized  and  take  an  important  share  in  our 
political  life. 

Who  a  Citizen  Is. — The  question  may  be  asked, 
"Who  are  citizens?"  In  the  first  place,  most  of  the 
boys  and  girls  in  your  class  are  citizens  of  the  United 
States  by  right  of  birth.  If  you  were  born  in  the  United 
States,  you  are  a  citizen  unless  your  father  was  a  for- 
eigner and  you  wish  to  claim  citizenship  in  a  foreign 
country.  If  you  are  the  son  or  daughter  of  a  citizen 
you  are  a  citizen,  no  matter  where  you  were  born.  If 
you  came  with  your  parents  to  this  country  as  a  baby, 
and  your  father  has  not  become  a  citizen,  you  are  not 
a  citizen  and  must  be  naturalized  before  you  can  vote. 
In  other  words,  you  must  go  through  the  process  by 
means  of  which  foreigners  are  made  citizens.  Any  resi- 
dent of  the  United  States  may  become  a  citizen  if  he 

280 


has  not  been  convicted  of  crime.  Most  of  the  foreigners 
who  enter  America  seek  citizenship  as  soon  as  the  law 
allows.  A  few  people  live  in  the  country  all  their  lives 
without  becoming  citizens,  and  they  sometimes  get  into 
serious  trouble  by  failing  to  acquire  citizenship.  In  the 
World  War  the  property  of  many  Germans  was  seized 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

BECOMING  A  CITIZEN 

by  the  government,  though  in  some  cases  the  people  so 
suffering  had  lived  in  America  for  years. 

The  Way  to  Become  a  Citizen. — The  manner  in 
which  a  foreigner  becomes  a  citizen  is  interesting.  He 
first  files  a  Declaration  of  Intention  showing  that  he 
wishes  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  The  next 
stage  is  to  file  the  Second  Paper  or  Petition  for  Natural- 

281 


ization.  The  last  step  is  for  the  applicant  to  appear 
before  the  judge  of  a  United  States  court  and  prove 
that  he  has  lived  in  this  country  for  five  years  and  that 
he  understands  something  about  our  government.  He 
then  takes  the  oath  of  allegiance,  in  which  he  solemnly 
swears  to  be  a  true  and  faithful  citizen  of  this  country 
and  to  give  up  allegiance  to  other  lands.  When  a  for- 
eigner becomes  a  citizen,  his  wife  and  children  are 
made  citizens  by  that  act  and  thus  do  not  need  to  be 
naturalized  themselves. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Tell  a  story  about  a  successful  foreigner  in  your  community  or 
your  nearest  town. 

2.  Tell  a  story  you  have  read  of  a  distinguished  naturalized  citizen. 

3.  Find  in  a  newspaper  or  magazine  an  incident  of  Ellis  Island. 


282 


CHAPTER  XLII 

EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Problems:  (1)  To  trace  the  growth  of  our  country;  and 
(2)  to  show  how  this  growth  was  brought  about. 

How  a  Continent  Was  Won.  —  "Westward  the 
Course  of  Empire  Takes  Its  Way,"  is  the  title  of  a 
famous  picture  that  adorns  the  walls  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  In  this  painting  you  see  the  hardy 
pioneers  crossing  the  mountains — the  men  on  horse- 
back and  the  women  and  children  in  covered  wagons — 
in  search  of  new  and  fertile  lands  toward  the  setting 
sun.  How  our  country  grew  from  thirteen  states  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  until  it  reached  the  Pacific  Ocean  is 
a  story  that  all  American  boys  and  girls  should  know. 
In  this  chapter  you  may  read  a  few  of  the  most  stirring 
parts  of  this  wonderful  tale. 

The  Country  We  Desired. — In  the  year  1800  the 
land  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains belonged  to  Spain.  What  of  the  wild  region 
beyond  the  Rockies?  It  was  unknown  to  the  people  of 
our  country.  Spain  also  owned  the  city  of  New  Orleans 
and  a  narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Mississippi.  The  fact  that  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
was  held  by  Spain  aroused  much  dissatisfaction  in 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  other  states  near  the  Ohio 
River;  for  there  were  no  railroads  in  that  day,  and  the 
only  way  in  which  the  people  of  those  states  could  send 
their  products  to  the  outside  world  was  by  the  Missis- 

283 


sippi  River.  Spain  could  close  its  mouth  to  our  com- 
merce at  any  time.  This  dissatisfaction  grew  when  in 
the  year  1800  Spain  turned  over  the  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory to  France.  Napoleon  was  at  the  head  of  the 
government  in  France  at  that  time,  and  many  thought 
that  he  wished  to  conquer  the  world.  Fearing  his  power, 
the  people  of  our  country  demanded  that  something  be 
done  to  secure  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Louisiana  Purchase. — Thomas  Jefferson,  who 
was  President  of  the  United  States  at  the  time,  told 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  our  minister  to  France,  to  try  to 
buy  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Territory;  so  anxious  was 
he  to  bring  this  about  that  he  sent  James  Monroe  to 
assist  Livingston.  To  the  surprise  of  the  government, 
France  agreed  to  sell  the  whole  territory  to  us  for  the 
sum  of  $15,000,000.  Napoleon  realized  that  England 
with  her  great  navy  could  easily  conquer  the  territory, 
so  he  wisely  decided  to  take  this  price,  which  was  con- 
sidered a  very  large  sum  of  money  at  that  time  (1803). 
Many  people  were  opposed  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
and  claimed  that  Jefferson  violated  the  Constitution  in 
making  it.  But  when  we  consider  the  great  states  that 
have  been  formed  out  of  the  vast  territory,  and  the 
fact  that  all  this  fertile  land  cost  less  than  three  cents 
an  acre,  we  must  realize  that  Jefferson  was  very  wise 
in  buying  it.  When  the  Louisiana  Purchase  treaty  had 
been  signed  in  Paris,  Livingston  said  to  Monroe,  "We 
have  lived  long,  but  this  is  the  noblest  work  of  our 
lives." 

The  Battle  of  the  Alamo. — At  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
is  an  old  Spanish  mission  or  church,  called  the  Alamo, 
which  is  famous  in  American  history  because  within  its 

284 


walls  American  frontiersmen  fought  one  of  the  bravest 
battles  in  all  the  world's  history.  As  you  doubtless 
know,  Texas  was  once  a  part  of  Mexico,  but  the  Ameri- 
can pioneers  who  settled  the  country  were  unwilling  to 
live  under  Mexican  rule,  and  began  a  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence. In  this  war  the  battle  of  the  Alamo  was 
fought.  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican  general,  entered 
San  Antonio  with  an  army  of  several  thousand  soldiers. 
The  Texan  commander,  Colonel  Travis,  decided  to  hold 
the  Alamo,  although  he  had  only  one  hundred  'and 
eighty  men.  Santa  Anna  demanded  a  surrender,  and, 
when  Travis  refused,  hoisted  a  red  flag  to  show  that  no 
mercy  would  be  shown  the  defenders.  Attacks  were 
made  by  the  Mexicans  through  the  last  days  of  Febru- 
ary, 1836,  but  the  brave  defenders  beat  the  enemy  off. 
Travis  sent  out  an  appeal  for  reinforcements.  His 
courier  could  find  only  thirty-two  men,  but  they  an- 
swered the  call,  cut  their  way  through  the  Mexican 
army,  and  entered  the  Alamo  just  three  days  before 
the  final  assault.  These  men  could  have  saved  their 
lives  by  refusing  to  answer  Colonel  Travis's  call,  but 
like  true  Americans  they  went  to  the  help  of  their  com- 
rades at  any  cost.  On  March  6  the  last  attack  was 
made.  Time  after  time  the  defenders  beat  back  the 
enemy,  but  finally  the  Mexicans  entered  the  fort,  where 
the  Americans  met  them  with  bowie  knives  and  pistols 
in  a  terrible  hand-to-hand  fight.  Travis,  David 
Crockett,  Colonel  Bowie,  and  all  the  Americans  were 
slain.  The. monument  erected  to  their  memory  bears 
this  inscription:  "Thermopylae  had  her  Messenger  of 
Defeat;  the  Alamo  had  None."  Texas  finally  freed 
herself  from  Mexican  rule  and  joined  the  United  States 

285 


in  1845.  This  brought  on  a  war  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States,  in  which  our  country  was  successful. 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  California 
were  added  to  the  United  States  as  a  result  of  it. 

The  Forty-Niners. — You  have  studied  in  your  his- 
tory about  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in  1849, 
and  you  know  of  the  great  rush  of  people  who  went 
there  seeking  fortune.  But  you  do  not  know,  perhaps,- 
of  the  hardships  suffered  by  those  gold  hunters  in  cross- 
ing the  prairies,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  deserts 
of  the  Far  West.  There  were  three  ways  in  which  people 
went  to  California,  in  the  gold  rush.  The  first  was 
around  Cape  Horn,  the  second  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  the  third  the  overland  route.  It  was  the 
overland  route  that  was  especially  full  of  hardships  and 
dangers.  The  gold  seekers  usually  gathered  in  large 
bands  before  crossing  the  Rockies.  Sometimes  there 
would  be  several  hundred  people  in  a  party,  and  their 
covered  wagons  formed  a  caravan.  The  men  rode  on 
horses  with  guns  swinging  over  their  shoulders ;  usually 
at  their  head  was  a  famous  scout  who  knew  all  the 
trails  across  the  vast  stretch  of  desert  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  This  scout 
knew  how  to  avoid  hostile  bands  of  Indians,  and  where 
to  find  streams  of  water;  he  guided  the  settlers  on  their 
perilous  journey.  What  an  interesting  trip  it  must 
have  been,  not  only  for  the  brave  men,  but  also  for  the 
women  and  children!  Hundreds  of  Forty-niners  died 
in  making  the  journey.  Many  were  killed  by  hostile 
Indians;  others  were  lost  in  the  deserts  and  died  of 
thirst  and  starvation.  The  majority,  however,  made  the 
journey  in  safety.  They  opened  the  Western  country 

286 


Copyright,  Publishers  Photo  Service 

(287)  A  SCENE  IN  THE  YOSEMITE  VALLEY,  CALIFORNIA 


and  settled  California  and  the  other  Pacific  coast 
states,  which  are  now  among  the  richest  in  the  Union. 

The  First  Continental  Railroad. — For  many  years 
after  the  Pacific  coast  was  settled,  the  only  method  of 
crossing  the  immense  region  from  the  Rockies  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada  was  by  stagecoach  and  wagons.  This 
trip  took  weeks  and  was  full  of  peril.  When  railroads 
began  to  be  built  in  the  East,  people  dreamed  of  a  rail- 
road that  would  extend  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
This  was  such  a  vast  undertaking  that  Congress  was 
asked  to  help.  Congress  therefore  passed  an  act  in  the 
year  1862  to  aid  in  the  building  of  a  railroad  and  tele- 
graph line  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  two  companies  organized  to  build  the  rail- 
road were  to  receive  sections  of  land  on  each  side  of  the 
roadbed,  in  addition  to  $16,000  for  every  mile  of  track 
laid.  The  companies  employed  thousands  of  laborers, 
and  engaged  in  a  great  race,  one  working  eastward  and 
the  other  westward.  They  finally  met  near  Salt  Lake 
City  in  1869.  The  last  tie  was  made  of  California 
laurel,  and  a  great  crowd  gathered  to  see  the  last  spike 
driven  into  it.  This  spike  was  of  pure  gold  and  was 
struck  by  a  silver  hammer.  There  was  great  rejoicing 
over  the  completion  of  the  railway.  Altogether  it  cost 
the  government  almost  a  hundred  million  dollars  and 
a  strip  of  land  ten  miles  wide  from  the  Missouri  River 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  but  it  opened  the  great  West  to 
homeseekers  and  made  possible  the  building  of  rich  and 
populous  states  in  a  wilderness  once  uninhabited  by 
man. 

Other  Territory. — In  1867  the  United  States  ac- 
quired Alaska.  Later  the  Sandwich  Islands  joined  the 

288 


United  States.  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippine  Islands 
were  won  in  the  Spanish-American  War.  A  few  years 
ago  the  United  States  bought  the  Virgin  Islands  from 
Denmark. 

The  Panama  Canal. — No  one  thing  shows  the  great- 
ness of  America  more  than  the  building  of  the  Panama 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

GATUN  LOCKS,  PANAMA  CANAL 

Canal.  Just  as  Thomas  Jefferson  is  entitled  to  the 
gratitude  of  Americans  for  buying  the  Louisiana  Ter- 
ritory, so  President  Roosevelt  will  always  be  remem- 
bered for  building  the  Panama  Canal.  The  French  first 
tried  to  construct  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
They  began  work  in  1879,  but  after  spending  a  vast 
sum  of  money  they  failed  because  of  inadequate 

289 


machinery,  malaria,  and  yellow  fever.  The  United 
States  sought  for  years  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the 
republic  of  Colombia  securing  the  right  to  dig  a  canal. 
Finally  the  state  of  Panama  set  up  a  separate  govern- 
ment, recognized  by  President  Roosevelt,  and  signed  a 
treaty  giving  the  United  States  a  canal  zone  across 
the  Isthmus.  We  paid  Panama  $10,000,000  for  these 
rights.  President  Roosevelt  then  appointed  a  Canal 
Commission,  whose  first  task  was  to  decide  upon  the 
type  of  canal  to  be  built.  The  French  had  tried  to 
build  a  sea-level  canal;  we  wisely  decided  upon  a  lock 
waterway. 

Features  of  the  Canal. — This  mighty  piece  of  work 
was  begun  in  1904,  and  for  ten  years  thirty -seven 
thousand  workmen  were  busy  day  and  night  carrying 
on  the  work.  The  main  features  of  the  canal  are: 

1.  The  Gatun  Dam  near  the  Atlantic  coast.     This 
great  dam,  one  and  a  half  miles  long  and  a  half  mile 
wide  at  its  base,  was  built  to  hold  the  waters  of  the 
Chagres  River,   thereby   forming   a  lake  twenty-two 
miles  long. 

2.  The  Culebra  Cut.    Millions  of  tons  of  rock  and 
dirt  were  removed  by  great  steam  shovels  from  this  cut 
through  the  highest  point  on  the  canal  route.     There 
were  frequent  "  slides >?  in  the  cut,  which  for  a  time  baf- 
fled the  engineers  in  charge;    but  finally  the  required 
depth  was  reached. 

3.  The  Locks.    Six  great  double  locks  were  built  for 
the  canal,  all  operated  by  electricity  generated  by  the 
water  of  Gatun  Dam. 

Makers  of  the  Canal. — The  length  of  the  canal  is 
forty  miles  from  shore  to  shore,  and  the  total  cost  in 

290 


money  was  $375,000,000.  Most  of  the  laborers  were 
Chinese  coolies  and  seasoned  tropical  workers  from  the 
West  Indies.  In  addition  to  Theodore  Roosevelt,  two 
men  acquired  fame  in  the  building  of  the  canal- 
Major  G.  W.  Goethals,  the  chief  engineer  in  charge,  and 
Colonel  William  C.  Gorgas,  who  made  the  Canal  Zone 
sanitary.  It  is  estimated  that  Colonel  Gorgas,  by  abol- 
ishing malaria  and  yellow  fever  from  the  Canal  Zone, 
saved  thousands  of  lives  and  many  millions  of  dollars. 
You  doubtless  know  the  advantages  of  the  Panama 
Canal  in  peace  and  war.  Do  not  forget  that  this  was 
the  crowning  act  in  the  winning  of  a  continent  for  our 
country  and  the  greatest  modern  engineering  achieve- 
ment of  any  nation. 

CLUB  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Use  the  following  questions  for  a  review  game.    Add  to  the  list 
questions  which  you  think  important: 

In  the  year  1800,  to  whom  belonged  all  the  territory  from  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  now  embraced 
in  the  United  States? 

How  did  the  United  States  acquire  this  territory? 

Against  what  country  did  Texas  have  to  fight  to  gain  its  freedom? 

When  did  it  become  a  part  of  the  United  States? 

Who  were  the  "Forty-niners"? 

How  was  the  first  transcontinental  railroad  built? 

2.  Describe  the  Panama  Canal  and  tell  how  it  was  built. 

3.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  showing  the  original  thirteen  state* 
and  all  the  accessions  of  territory. 


291 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD 

The  Family  of  Nations. — Columbus  made  his  famous 
voyage  of  discovery  in  three  tiny  ships,  pictures  of 
which  you  have  doubtless  seen  in  your  school  histories. 
It  took  him  three  months  to  cross  the  sea.  In  1492 
there  were  no  steamships  or  railroads,  and  while  some 
commerce  was  carried  on,  yet  each  nation  lived  largely 
to  itself.  As  there  were  no  newspapers,  the  people  of 
one  nation  knew  little  about  what  was  happening  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Foreigners  were  looked  upon 
with  suspicion,  and  each  country  feared  and  distrusted 
its  neighbors. 

The  World  Today.— How  different  the  world  is 
today!  Steamships,  railroads,  telegraph  and  cable  lines, 
and  daily  newspapers  have  brought  the  people  of  Eng- 
land and  China  closer  to  us  than  Massachusetts  was  to 
Georgia  in  Revolutionary  days.  You  can  take  up  the 
morning  paper  and  read  about  the  leading  events  that 
occurred  yesterday  in  Japan,  South  Africa,  Argentina, 
and  Poland.  Each  nation  carries  on  an  extensive  com- 
merce with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  is,  in  fact,  depend- 
ent upon  other  nations  for  many  things  that  make  life 
pleasant.  To  realize  how  extensive  international  com- 
merce is  just  look  at  the  breakfast  table.  The  sugar 
came  perhaps  from  Cuba,  the  bananas  from  Central 
America,  the  coffee  from  Brazil,  the  pepper  from  the 
islands  of  Asia,  the  tea  from  China,  and  some  of  the 

292 


dishes  from  European  countries.  'The  dependence  of 
each  nation  upon  the  rest  of  the  world  is  best  appre- 
ciated during  a  war.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  World 
War  Germany  had  merchant,  ships  on  every  sea;  but 
when  England  blockaded  her  ports,  the  German  people 
began  to  feel  the  pangs  of  hunger  and  the  nations 
dependent  on  her  for  dyestuffs  and  other  articles  found 
themselves  greatly  inconvenienced.  Almost  the  entire 
globe  was  drawn  into  the  war,  because  what  affects  one 
part  of  the  world  affects  the  whole.  It  has  come  about 
that  the  world  of  today  is  just  one  large  community. 
No  nation  can  say:  "We  will  live  to  ourselves  and  let 
other  nations  do  likewise."  America  is  a  member  of 
the  family  of  nations  and,  as  such,  must  play  a  great 
part  not  only  in  the  development  of  its  own  resources 
but  in  the  building  up  of  other  nations. 

America  the  Melting  Pot. — We  should  feel  kindly 
towards  other  nations,  because  our  citizens  have  come 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Burial  services  were  held 
in  some  city  over  the  remains  of  five  soldiers  who  had 
been  killed  in  the  Argonne-Meuse  battle.  These  boys 
had  been  buried  in  an  American  cemetery  in  France, 
where  thousands  of  our  soldiers  lie,  but  at  the  request 
of  their  parents  their  remains  were  brought  back  to  this 
country. in  a  United  States  battleship  for  final  burial. 
The  newspapers  gave  the  nationality  of  the  fathers  of 
these  boys.  One  was  a  Greek,  another  an  Italian,  the 
third  an  Austrian,  and  the  remaining  two  came  from 
the  original  stock  of  early  settlers.  This  incident  should 
impress  on  us  the  truth  that  our  country  owes  a  great 
debt  to  the  millions  of  immigrants  who  have  come  to 
our  shores  from  every  country  of  Europe.  They  have 

293 


done  their  part  in  developing  farms,  mines,  and  fac- 
tories of  our  land;  they  and  their  children  are  loyal 
Americans. 

The  World  War. — That  America  is  truly  a  member 
of  a  family  of  nations  is  shown  by  her  entrance  into  the 
World  War.  We  tried  to  keep  out  of  the  war,  but  could 
not;  for,  as  stated  before,  our  welfare  is  bound  up  with 
that  of  every  other  nation.  We  sent  two  million  sol- 
diers to  France,  and  loaned  billions  of  dollars  to  our 
allies,  not  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  territory  for  our- 
selves, but  to  make  the  world  "a  free  and  safe  place  to 
live  in."  We  came  out  of  the  war  the  strongest  and 
richest  nation  in  the  world,  and  other  countries  now 
look  to  us  for  help  and  guidance. 

American  Ideals. — As  an  American  you  should  be 
proud  of  the  ideals  of  your  country  and  of  their  world- 
wide influence.  One  American  ideal  is  that  of  political 
liberty.  When  Thomas  Jefferson  penned  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  he  wrote  it  not  for  our  country 
alone  but  for  all  countries.  Since  his  day  the  principles 
of  the  Declaration  have  been  adopted  by  practically  the 
whole  world.  Kings  no  longer  rule  tyrannically  over 
their  subjects,  but  in  nearly  every  nation  the  people 
have  the  right  to  decide  by  their  ballots  how  the  affairs 
of  the  country  shall  be  conducted.  Another  ideal  that 
America  has  given  to  the  world  is  that  of  kindness 
toward  other  nations.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  our 
dealings  with  China.  In  the  year  1900  the  leading 
nations  of  Europe  were  seeking  to  dismember  China  by 
taking  control  of  her  territory  and  by  obtaining  ex- 
clusive trading  rights  for  themselves  in  certain  areas. 
The  United  States  induced  these  nations  to  adopt  the 

294 


"Open  Door"  policy,  by  which  China  should  be  left 
her  whole  territory  and  each  nation  be  given  right  to 
trade  with  all  parts  of  the  country.  About  this  time 
the  Boxer  Rebellion  broke  out,  and  Chinese  mobs 
killed  many  foreigners.  The  great  powers,  including 
the  United  States,  sent  armed  forces  to  China  to  put 
down  the  rebellion.  The  nations  interested  immediately 
demanded  a  huge  indemnity  of  China.  To  these 


Copyright,  Clinedinst 


THE  PAN-AMERICAN  BUILDING 

demands  our  country  objected,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  indemnity  finally  awarded  America  was  canceled 
by  an  act  of  Congress.  So  grateful  did  China  feel 
toward  us  that  she  decided  to  use  the  canceled  indem- 
nity to  send  Chinese  students  to  attend  our  colleges 
and  universities. 

World  Peace. — A  third  noble  ideal  of  America  is 
that  of  world  peace.    One  of  the  most  beautiful  build- 

295 


ings  in  our  national  capital  is  that  of  the  Pan-American 
Union,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  peace, 
friendship,  and  commerce  among  all  the  nations  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  The  United  States,  it  is  needless 
to  say,  was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  launching  of  this 
movement.  In  The  Hague,  the  capital  of  Holland,  there 
is  a  beautiful  building  called  the  Palace  of  Peace,  where 
the  International  Court  of  Arbitration  met  to  try  to 
settle  peaceably  disputes  that  arise  between  nations. 
An  American  gave  $1,500,000  for  the  erection  of  this 
building,  and  the  United  States  has  always  taken  a 
leading  part  in  the  efforts  to  secure  permanent  peace. 
President  Wilson  at  the  conference  held  at  Versailles  at 
the  close  of  the  World  War  ably  advocated  our  ideals. 
The  Armament  Conference  of  1921,  held  in  Washing- 
ton, was  a  further  effort  to  secure  world  peace.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  American  ideals  of  justice  and  fairness 
to  others  will  prevail  throughout  the  world. 


THE  FATHERLAND 

Where  is  the  true  man's  fatherland? 
Is  it  where  he  by  chance  is  born? 
Doth  not  the  yearning  spirit  scorn 
In  such  scant  borders  to  be  spanned? 
Oh,  yes !  his  fatherland  must  be 
As  the  blue  heaven  wide  and  free! 

Is  it  alone  where  freedom  is, 
Where  God  is  God  and  man  is  man? 
Doth  he  not  claim  a  broader  span 
For  the  soul's  love  of  home  than  this? 
Oh  yes !  his  fatherland  must  be 
As  the  blue  heaven  wide  and  free! 

297 


Where'er  a  human  heart  doth  wear 

Joy's  myrtle-wreath  or  sorrow's  gyves, 

Where'er  a  human  spirit  strives 

After  a  life  more  true  and  fair, 

There  is  the  true  man's  birthplace  grand, 

His  is  a  world- wide  fatherland! 

Where'er  a  single  slave  doth  pine, 
Where'er  one  man  may  help  another — 
Thank  God  for  such  a  birthright,  brother, 
That  spot  of  earth  is  thine  and  mine ! 
There  is  the  true  man's  birthright  grand, 
His  is  a  world- wide  fatherland! 

JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL. 


298 


APPENDIX 

I 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

The  familiar  maxim,  "Learn  to  do  by  doing,"  should 
probably  be  applied  to  the  subject  of  civics  more  than  to 
any  other  study.  A  dry  question-and-answer  study  of  the 
subject  brings  little  result.  The  only  way  for  children  to 
become  good  citizens  is  for  them  to  be  good  citizens  at  home 
and  in  school.  With  this  thought  in  view  the  authors  have 
outlined  a  plan  which  they  believe  will  bring  about  the  proper 
study  of  citizenship.  In  the  first  chapter  it  is  suggested  that 
the  class  be  organized  as  a  civics  club.  At  the  end  of  each 
chapter  certain  work  is  assigned  the  club.  It  is  expected 
that  the  president  and  the  executive  committee,  with  the  aid 
of  the  teacher,  will  assign  the  topics  or  projects  to  com- 
mittees, giving  each  child  in  the  class  something  to  do. 
Below  a  few  lessons  are  worked  out  which  will  help  an  in- 
experienced teacher  plan  other  lessons. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  A  Civics  CLUB 
(See  Chapter  I) 

i 

This  lesson  should  be  read  in  class  silently,  the  children 
following  directions  given  by  the  teacher.  At  the  end  of  the 
lesson,  after  a  brief  summary  of  the  facts  gained,  the  teacher 
may  say:  "We  have  learned  how  a  club  in  another  school 
was  organized.  Would  you  like  to  organize  a  similar  club?" 
(A  vote  is  taken  and  the  question  decided  in  favor  of  the 
organization.) 

TEACHER:  Have  you  any  suggestions  to  make? 

299 


PUPIL:  Committees  should  be  appointed  in  the  school. 
(There  is  a  full  discussion  of  this  question.) 

TEACHER:  You  agree  that  committees  should  be  ap- 
pointed, and  upon  your  suggestion  I  shall  now  appoint  the 
following  committees.  Every  child  in  the  class  will  be 
appointed  on  some  committee. 

The  teacher  appoints  the  following  committees:  Com- 
mittee on  Name  of  Organization,  Committee  on  Constitu- 
tion, Committee  on  Pledge,  Committee  on  Slogans,  Com- 
mittee on  Time  and  Place  of  Meeting.  These  committees 
are  temporary  committees  and  their  work  will  have  been 
finished  when  the  organization  has  been  completed.  Per- 
manent committees  will  be  appointed  by  the  officers  of  the 
club  after  organization  and  as  the  need  for  them  is  developed. 

TEACHER  :  The  boy  or  girl  whose  name  appears  first  upon 
a  committee  is  chairman  of  that  committee  and  must  be 
prepared  to  make  the  report.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  chairman  to 
call  his  committee  together  at  a  certain  time.  I  would 
suggest  that  the  committees  meet  in  different  parts  of  the 
room  immediately  after  this  period  or  at  the  close  of  school. 
I  shall  be  at  my  desk  ready  to  help  you  in  any  way  if  you 
wish  to  come  to  me  for  suggestions.  It  may  be  that  some 
of  you  may  think  it  advisable  to  wait  and  get  aid  from  your 
father  or  mother  and  have  another  meeting.  That  is  prob- 
ably a  good  plan.  Remember  that  a  report  is  expected  from 
every  committee  when  the  class  meets  tomorrow. 

ii 

When  the  class  meets  on  the  second  day,  the  teacher  calls 
for  the  reports  of  the  committees  in  the  following  order: 
Name  of  the  organization. 
Constitution. 
Pledge. 
Slogan. 
Time  and  Place  of  Meeting. 

300 


After  these  reports  have  been  received  and  acted  on,  the 
class  should  proceed  to  the  election  of  officers. 

The  teacher  should  now  have  a  discussion  as  to  the  best 
way  in  which  the  newly  organized  club  can  further  the  study 
of  civics.  The  children  may  be  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
committees  comprising  the  whole  class  should  be  appointed 
each  day  by  the  president  and  the  teacher,  to  report 
on  the  topics  or  projects  at  the  end  of  each  lesson  in  the 
textbook,  these  reports  to  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  each 
period. 

The  teacher  then  assigns  Chapter  Two  for  study  and 
appoints  committees  to  report  on  the  various  topics  at  the 
end  of  the  chapter.  After  this  the  president  confers  with  the 
teacher  each  day  as  to  the  appointment  of  committees. 

COMMUNITY  STUDY 
(See  Chapters  II  and  III) 

The  teacher  should  call  for  the  reports  of  the  various 
committees.  Each  report  should  be  followed  by  a  full  dis- 
cussion in  which  the  whole  class  participates.  The  lessons 
will  fail  of  their  purpose  if  they  merely  end  with  a  report  on 
what  can  be  done  for  the  community.  Steps  should  be  taken 
to  carry  out  the  suggestions  made.  Perhaps  a  committee 
might  be  appointed  to  appear  before  the  town  council  to 
urge  the  adoption  of  some  measure  for  the  welfare  of  the 
community.  . 

In  Chapter  III  the  teacher  has  a  chance — in  appointing 
committees  to  improve  the  school — to  organize  real  projects 
which  will  probably  keep  several  committees  busy  during 
the  entire  year.  Once  a  week,  on  Friday  perhaps,  these 
committees  should  make  reports.  They  should  make  posters 
and  do  everything  which  will  promote  the  work  of  their 
committees.  In  this  way  they  will  be  live,  working  com- 
mittees. 

301 


A  question  is  given  at  the  end  of  Chapter  III  for  class 
discussion.  Of  course  the  teacher  must  skillfully  lead  the 
children  to  right  conclusions.  The  following  brief  outline 
may  serve  as  a  suggestion: 

TEACHER:  Should  children  receive  a  weekly  allowance 
for  chores  done  at  home? 

FRANK:  I  don't  think  they  should.  My  father  takes  care 
of  me,  gives  me  food,  and  sends  me  to  school.  I  think  it  is 
my  duty  to  do  everything  I  am  called  upon  to  do  at  home 
without  pay. 

MARY:  I  don't  agree  with  Frank.  I  have  to  go  to  my 
father  for  spending  money.  I  should  not  have  to  ask  him  for 
a  nickel  every  time  I  need  one.  If  he  would  give  me  a  regular 
allowance  it  would  enable  me  to  plan  how  to  spend  my 
money. 

SARAH:  I  agree  with  Mary.  I  know  my  father  loses 
patience  sometimes  when  I  ask  him  for  money.  I  really  am 
afraid  to  ask  him  at  times.  It  would  certainly  be  much 
better  if  I  knew  beforehand  what  I  am  to  get. 

JOHN  :  Some  boys  and  girls  do  not  do  any  work  at  home 
at  all.  Should  they  be  paid  for  doing  nothing? 

JAMES  :  One  advantage  of  the  plan  is  that  every  boy  and 
girl  is  required  to  do  certain  things  for  the  benefit  of  the 
home.  I  agree  with  the  girls  that  the  plan  is  a  good  one. 

TEACHER  :  We  will  now  write  upon  the  blackboard  some 
of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  receiving  a  weekly 
allowance  for  chores  done. 

Advantages 

1.  It  makes  every  child  a  helper  in  the  home. 

2.  It  does  away  with  the  need  of  asking  parents  for 
money. 

3.  It  makes  the  child  a  responsible  spender. 

4.  It  tends  to  promote  thrift 

302 


Disadvantages 

1.  Children  should  feel  it  their  duty  to  do  chores  without 
expecting  a  reward. 

2.  In  some  homes  there  are  no  chores  to  do. 

TEACHER  :  We  will  leave  this  question  for  your  consider- 
ation until  tomorrow,  when  we  will  take  a  written  vote  on  it. 

THE  PLAYGROUND — COURAGE  AND  FAIR  PLAY 
(See  Chapters  V  and  VI) 

By  having  the  pupils  to  work  out  the  suggestions  offered 
at  the  end  of  these  chapters,  the  teacher  will  be  training  boys 
and  girls  in  leadership.  She  should  be  on  the  alert  and  see 
that  timid  children  take  some  part  in  the  general  activities. 
Aside  from  the  civic  value  of  the  work,  there  is  the  good  which 
comes  to  the  school.  Working  committees  make  a  live, 
dynamic  school. 

HEALTH 
(See  Chapters  VII,  XVI,  and  XXX) 

That "  Charity  begins  at  home  "  is  a  proverb  which  applies 
most  forcefully  here.  The  teacher  should  look  after  the 
sanitary  conditions  of  her  school  or  schoolroom.  She  should 
see  that  the  room  is  clean  and  well  ventilated,  and  if  she  is 
in  a  country  school  she  should  see  that  the  grounds  are  well 
kept  and  that  sanitary  conditions  prevail  in  all  outhouses. 
In  her  own  classroom  she  should  look  carefully  into  the 
physical  condition  of  her  pupils,  especially  as  to  their  eye- 
sight and  hearing. 

Organize  a  clean-up  squad  for  the  school  and  for  the 
streets.  Perhaps  the  boys  can  secure  the  use  of  an  unsightly 
vacant  lot  and  turn  it  into  an  attractive  playground,  in  this 
way  performing  two  civic  duties.  Boys  and  girls  may  take  def- 
inite steps  toward  planting  flowers  and  having  school  gardens. 

In  connection  with  the  lesson  in  Chapter  XVI,  a  cam- 

303 


paign  against  flies  and  mosquitoes  should  be  inaugurated. 
The  following  outline  may  help  in  an  anti-mosquito  cam- 
paign: HQW  to  F.ght  the  Mogquito 


1.  Know  all  the  facts  concerning  breeding:    that  mos- 
quitoes breed  in  rain  barrels,  guttering  of  houses,  and  in  any 
standing   water.      Wiggletails    are    usually    found    in    such 
places,  and  where  there  are  wiggletails  there  will  be  mos- 
quitoes. 

2.  Make  a  survey  in  the  neighborhood  to  locate  breeding 
places.     Draw  a  map  which  shows  these.     (These  surveys 
may  be  made  in  the  winter  when  no  active  work  can  be  done.) 

3.  Learn  the  different  methods  of  getting  rid  of  the  pests. 
By  a  simple  experiment  you  can  find  out  the  easiest  way. 
Put  a  mosquito  netting  over  a  glass  of  water  which  contains 
wiggletails  and  watch  them  develop.    You  will  see  that  they 
come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe.     Pour  oil  on 
top  of  the  water  and  the  mosquito  will  die.    If  oil  is  poured 
in  rain  barrels  and  on  other  standing  water,  the  mosquitoes 
will  be  exterminated.     If  the  surface  is  too  great  for  this 
treatment,  the  water  should  be  drained. 

4.  See  that  steps  are  taken  to  exterminate  mosquitoes  in 
your  community.    Take  your  map  to  your  health  officer  and 
offer  your  services  in  the  campaign. 

A  similar  campaign  should  be  planned  for  the  extermi- 
nation of  flies.  The  children  can  make  a  survey  of  a  block  in 
the  winter  and  locate  breeding  places  —  stables,  uncovered 
garbage,  compost,  etc.  —  and  take  steps  to  have  these 
removed. 

THE  COUNTY 
(See  Chapter  XI) 

Through  the  County  Field  Day,  the  County  Fair,  or 
through  other  county  contests  the  teacher  should  arouse 
interest  in  county  affairs. 

304 


VOCATIONAL  STUDY 
(See  Chapters  XV  and  XXIX) 

It  is  not  too  early  for  children  to  be  thinking  of  their 
life  work,  and  the  teacher  should  make  this  lesson  a  vital  one. 
This  is  the  time  for  vocational  guidance. 

II 
MEETING  OF  A  JUNIOR  CITIZENS   CLUB 

The  following  is  a  partial  report  of  a  meeting  of  an  eighth 
grade  class  which  had  organized  itself  as  a  town  meeting. 
The  account  is  self-explanatory.  It  will  be  found  very 
suggestive. 

Irvington  School. 

8-B  Grade.  January  27,  1921. 

MARGARET  COOK  (MAYOR  OF  ROWEN)  :  The  meeting 
will  please  come  to  order.  We  will  rise  and  say  the  oath. 

THE  MAYOR:  Will  the  minutes  of  our  last  meeting  now 
be  read? 

THE  SECRETARY  :  The  last  meeting  of  the  citizens  of 
Rowen  was  held  in  Room  9,  December  17,  1920. 

The  meeting,  as  usual,  was  opened  with  the  oath.  Our 
Mayor  next  announced  that  the  subject  for  discussion  was 
"Light."  Mr.  Winders  spoke  of  the  advantage  of  electric 
light.  Miss  Piersol  argued  that  gas  was  cheaper  for  light, 
giving  as  one  advantage  that  it  had  been  found  in  sufficient 
quantities  near  Rowen.  The  floor  was  open  for  general 
discussion.  Immediately  afterward  a  vote  was  taken  by 
which  it  was  decided  we  should  use  electricity  from  a  plant 
to  be  built  in  Rowen. 

Mr.  Pritchard  spoke  of  bridges  and  pointed  out  the 
advantages  of  different  kinds.  The  meeting  then  adjourned 
by  motion. 

305 


Unfinished  business  was  taken  up  at  a  special  meeting, 
Monday,  January  3,  1921.  The  question  of  a  bridge  was 
again  introduced.  Miss  Layman  recommended  a  public 
bridge,  and  following  her  Mr.  Burnett  spoke  in  favor  of  a 
private  bridge  owned  by  a  share-selling  concern.  The  floor 
was  opened  for  general  discussion  on  bridges.  Following  that 
a  vote  was  taken  and  it  was  decided  that  we  build  a  public 
bridge  with  a  concrete  foundation. 

Adjournment  on  motion. 

THE  MAYOR:  Are  there  any  corrections  of  these  minutes? 
If  not,  they  will  stand  approved  as  read. 

As  this  is  our  last  meeting  we  have  planned  a  program 
showing  the  origin  and  development  of  the  town  of  Rowen. 
We  have  with  us  today  some  of  Rowen's  former  citizens,  to 
whom  we  wish  to  show  the  improvement  and  advancement 
of  our  town  since  they  left.  We  have  also  some  of  Rowen's 
future  citizens  with  us,  to  whom  we  are  leaving  the  town, 
and  we  are  very  glad  to  see  so  many  visitors  with  us  today. 
I  have  asked  Miss  Nordstrom  to  tell  us  the  purpose  of  this 
town  meeting  and  the  way  in  which  these  meetings  started. 
Miss  Nordstrom. 

PHYLIS  NORDSTROM:  I  have  been  asked  to  tell  you 
something  about  our  town  meetings.  This  town  was  trans- 
mitted to  us  from  an  8-B  class.  It  is  transmitted  from 
•  one  8-B  class  to  another,  and  in  that  way  each  class  has 
a  chance  to  learn  how  to  carry  on  and  conduct  these  town 
meetings.  I  think  we  have  made  them  interesting  and 
profitable. 

In  planning  our  town  we  inquired  of  other  small  towns  in 
the  state  how  business  is  carried  on.  One  citizen  wrote  to  her 
aunt  to  find  out  about  lights,  so  it  is  by  inquiry  and  obser- 
vation that  we  try  to  make  our  town  as  modern  and  beautiful 
as  any  other  town  in  our  state.  We  citizens  of  Rowen  are 
proud  to  say  we  transmit  this  city  more  beautiful  than  it  was 

306 


transmit! 3d  to  us,  and  we  hope  the  incoming  citizens  will  do 
the  same  thing. 

THE  MAYOR:  There  were  many  things  to  be  considered 
in  planning  this  town.  Miss  Brenton  will  tell  us  something 
of  this. 

FLORA  BRENTON  :  When  we  began  this  Miss  B ,  our 

teacher,  suggested  that  instead  of  studying  civics  in  the 
usual  way  we  plan  a  town  and  run  it  the  way  a  small  town 
is  run  to-day.  All  the  pupils  approved  of  this,  so  the  town 
was  planned  and  named.  When  it  came  to  choosing  a  site, 
ten  pupils  were  sent  to  survey  Indiana  and  find  a  site  for  the 
town.  After  several  days'  survey,  a  vote  was  taken  and  the 
site  where  Rowen  now  stands  was  chosen.  There  are  many 
reasons  for  this  site.  One  is  that  the  soil  is  very  fertile  and 
there  are  maple  and  oak  trees  near  it.  Then  Indianapolis  is 
only  a  few  hours  ride,  and  Shelbyville  only  ten  miles  away. 

Next  a  name  must  be  given  to  this  beautiful  city,  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  and  several  names  brought  before 
it;  and  as  the  name  "Rowen"  received  the  most  votes  that 
was  the  name  given  the  town. 

But  a  place  for  a  city,  a  plari  and  a  name  is  not  enough; 
there  must  be  some  way  by  which  traffic  can  be  handled. 
The  checker-board  plan,  which  is  that  of  most  cities  in  the 
United  States  was  chosen — that  is,  a  plan  with  all  the  streets 
crossing  at  right  angles,  and  with  few  or  no  diagonal  streets. 
This  does  away  with  all  crooked  and  irregular  streets. 

We  are  glad,  in  transmitting  Rowen,  to  see  some  pioneers 
and  former  citizens  here,  and  also  to  see  the  incoming  citizens. 
We  know  you  will  do  your  part  well  while  running  the  town 
and  when  it  comes  time  for  you  to  move  you  will  hate  to 
move  as  much  as  we  hate  to  leave  today. 

THE  MAYOR:  The  former  citizens  of  Rowen  laid  a 
good  foundation  for  our  work.  Miss  Gray  will  tell  us  what 
they  accomplished. 

307 


BERNICE  GRAY:  Present  and  future  citizens  of  Rowen: 
I  shall  endeavor  to  make  you  realize  all  the  inhabitants 
before  us  have  done  to  make  our  town  what  it  is  to-day.  In 
the  pioneer  work  the  selecting  of  a  site  so  conveniently  near 
the  interurban  line  was  a  great  advantage.  Then  the  planning 
of  the  streets  in  Rowen  required  great  thought  and  skill  also. 
Another  aid  in  the  development  was  Main  Street,  which  was 
put  in  first  as  a  gravel  road.  The  pioneers  contributed  books 
for  a  day  library,  which  affords  better  education  for  our 
children,  and  also  is  a  great  pleasure  for  the  grown-ups. 

They  established  an  adequate  fire  department  consisting 
of  fifty  buckets,  a  twenty-five  gallon  chemical  can  and  a 
ladder. 

All  those  who  leave  the  town  plan  to  leave  it  with  some 
improvements,  so  that  all  former  citizens  will  be  very  proud 
of  their  town. 

THE  MAYOR:  We  have  done  our  best  to  carry  on  the 
work  so  well  started,  and  there  are  several  improvements 
we  have  made  since  we  have  lived  in  the  town.  One  of  these 
was  an  arrangement  for  the  education  of  our  children.  Miss 
Gray  will  tell  of  this. 

BERNICE  GRAY:  Citizens  of  Rowen;  I  have  been  asked 
to  talk  on  a  subject  which  ought  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest 
to  every  member  of  any  community,  and  that  is  the  question 
of  schools.  When  we  were  boys  and  girls  living  in  Irvingtoii 
we  used  to  study  civics  from  a  book  called  Our  America,  and 
in  that  we  were  told  that  the  purpose  of  education  is  to  so 
train  and  equip  an  individual  that  he  can  take  care  of  himself; 
earn  a  living,  and  live  in  the  fullest  enjoyment  possible; 
second,  it  should  train  the  individual  to  perform  his  duties  of 
citizenship  and  help  manage  the  affairs  of  this  city  with 
intelligence.  That  education  might  occupy  an  important 
place,  at  the  first  meeting  after  the  pioneers  had  moved  into 
their  new  home  they  decided  on  a  school.  The  discussion 

308 


was  whether  they  would  send  their  children  to  a  consolidated 
township  school  two  miles  away,  or  whether  they  would 
establish  a  private  school.  This  was  a  hard -fought  subject 
but  it  was  finally  decided  that  they  would  send  their  children 
to  the  township  school.  This  consolidated  school  is  situated 
on  a  very  beaiutiful  piece  of  ground  which  includes  many 
acres.  It  is  made  of  red  brick  and  has  eleven  rooms.  The 
basement  consists  of  a  good  shop,  a  very  attractive  gym  with 
much  apparatus,  and  also  a  fine  swimming  pool.  The 
ground  floor  is  wholly  schoolrooms,  and  there  are  two  grades 
to  each  room.  The  second  floor  has  five  rooms  for  the  high 
school,  and  we  have  also  sewing  and  cooking  rooms.  All 
the  rooms  are  supplied  with  fine  school  furniture  and  the 
blackboards  are  of  the  best  quality.  The  playground  is 
supplied  with  all  kinds  of  games  and  a  basket-ball  stand.  The 
school  was  furnished  with  three  wagons  in  which  to  carry  the 
country  children  to  and  from  school.  This  seems  very  con- 
venient for  them.  We  have  splendid  teachers  at  our  school. 
They  not  only  meet  the  requirements  of  the  law  of  Indiana 
as  to  scholarship,  but  they  are  especially  fine.  Then  our 
principal,  whom  we  all  love,  is  Miss  Koontz. 

We  hope  the  future  citizens  of  Rowen  will  enjoy  this  work 
as  much  as  we  have  in  our  beautiful  town  of  Rowen. 

THE  MAYOR  :  Most  of  you  remember  the  great  flood  that 
washed  away  the  bridge  which  was  put  up  by  our  former 
citizens.  This  was  a  great  loss  to  Rowen,  but  we  have 
already  put  up  a  new  structure.  Mr.  Pritchard  will  tell  us 
about  this  bridge. 

HARMON  PRITCHARD:  Friends,  Future  Citizens,  and 
Citizens  of  Rowen :  I  am  asked  to  talk  about  the  bridge  which 
we  have  put  in  since  we  came  into  the  city.  It  is  across  the 
river  which  runs  through  the  northwest  part  of  town.  We 
had  quite  a  discussion  whether  it  should  be  a  public  or  a 
private  bridge,  but  we  finally  decided  it  should  be  public. 

309 


We  also  decided,  since  we  had  just  put  in  electric  lights,  that 
at  present  we  could  not  afford  a  whole  bridge,  so  we  just  put 
in  a  good  concrete  foundation  with  temporary  sides.  The 
bridge  is  made  of  the  best  material  and  by  the  best  workmen. 
A  contracting  firm  of  Rowen  put  in  this  bridge  and  it  is  very 
beautiful.  I  feel  sure  that  the  future  citizens  of  Rowen  will  do 
their  be^t  to  finish  the  bridge  in  as  fine  a  way  as  it  has 
already  been  started. 

Mi£S  MASON:  I  would  like  to  ask  the  Mayor  what  sort 
of  amusements  you  are  planning  for  your  people. 

THE  MAYOR:  There  is  a  park  in  Rowen  which  is  open 
every  day  in  the  summer  time,  and  there  are  good  amuse- 
ments in  this  park,  swings  and  Maypoles,  and  the  children 
go  there  in  the  summer.  In  the  winter  they  have  outside 
games  in  the  schoolyard. 

Miss  MASON:  Do  you  have  picture  shows? 

THE  MAYOR:  Yes,  we  have  a  picture  show  run  by  Miss 
Gray.  It  is  named  the  "Strand,"  and  they  have  very  good 
pictures.  Some  are  educational  pictures  and  we  enjoy  them 
very  much. 

Reports  were  presented  by  different  pupils  on  the 
following  subjects:  lights,  library,  fire  department,  contract- 
ing, dairying,  storekeeping  and  banking. 

THE  MAYOR:  If  there  is  no  further  business  the  meeting 
is  adjourned. 

Ill 

PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 

The  following  lists  are  merely  suggestive,  but  they 
contain  details  that  may  be  worked  out  by  the  teacher: 

1.  Dramatization  and  Pageantry.  Several  excellent 
dramatizations  can  be  found  in  Dramatized  Scenes  from 
American  History  by  Augusta  Stevenson. 

a.  Signing  of  the  Mayflower  Compact. 

310 


b.  Second  Continental  Congress.     (Four  episodes.) 

i.  Continental  Congress  in  session. 

ii.  Committee  appointed  to  draw  up  Declaration, 

iii.  Thomas  Jefferson's  midnight  inspiration, 

iv.  Report  of  the  committee. 

c.  A  meeting  of  state  legislature  or  general  assembly. 

d.  A  meeting  of  the  city  council.    (Part  of  the  class  may 
be  organized  as  a  council  and  a  part  to  represent  a  com- 
mittee appearing  before  the  council  in  regard  to  an  ordinance 
for  paving  streets  or  some  other  local  project. 

e.  A  court  of  naturalization.    The  following  plan  may  be 
used.     Let  the  classroom  represent  the  courtroom.     The 
teacher  or  a  pupil  may  act  as  judge  and  two  pupils  as  re- 
porters.   Applicants  for  naturalization  may  take  out  either 
first  or  second  papers. 

f.  Makers  of  the  flag.    A  large  flag  should  be  suspended 
at  the  back  of  the  stage  with  a  girl  dressed  as  Liberty  con- 
cealed behind  it.     Pupils  who  have  performed  some  act  of 
service  to  their  community  pass  before  it  and  are  greeted  by 
the  flag. 

g.  Constitutional  convention.     Let  the  class  represent 
the  convention  of  1787.    Have  various  pupils  represent  the 
leading  delegates,  presenting  in  speeches  the  points  of  view 
of  Washington,  Franklin,  Madison,  and  Hamilton  on  the 
great  question  at  issue. 

h.  The  immigrant  gateway.  This  should  be  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  entrance  of  the  immigrants  into  the  United 
States  and  of  the  examination  conducted  by  the  officials  of 
the  immigrant  service  who  determine  their  fitness  to  enter. 
(Reference :  Reuben  Greed,  The  Congressional  Home  Mission 
Society,  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.) 

i.  A  cabinet  meeting  in  Washington's,  Jackson's,  or  Lin- 
coln's administration.  Costumes  appropriate  to  the  period 
should  be  used,  if  possible. 

311 


j.   A  Red  Cross  play. 

k.  Plymouth  Rock  Pageant. 

2.  Student  organizations  which  exemplify  the  working 
of  civic  bodies. 

a.  A  town  meeting.     For  a  full  stenographic  report  of 
such  a  meeting,  see  page  305. 

b.  A  meeting  of  a  park  board. 

c.  A  meeting  of  a  board  of  health. 

d.  A  meeting  of  a  board  of  public  works. 

e.  A  meeting  of  a  board  of  county  commissioners. 

f .  A  meeting  of  a  school  board. 

g.  A  presidential  election, 
h.  A  primary  election. 

i.  A  self-government  council. 

j.  A  literary  society. 

k.  A  staff  meeting  of  the  school  paper. 

1.  A  meeting  of  the  directors  of  the  school  bank. 

3.  Participation  of  pupils  in  adult  activities. 

a.  Junior  Red  Cross. 

b.  Relief  and  charitable  societies. 

c.  Junior  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

d.  Fire  prevention  or  clean-up  campaign.    As  a  part  of 
such  campaign,  have  each  pupil  appointed  an  inspector  to 
inspect  his  own  premises.    The  following  blank  form  may  be 
used : 

FIRE  PREVENTION  INSPECTION  AND  PLEDGE  CARD 
Pupil's  Pledge 

I  pledge  myself  to  cooperate  in  every  way  I  can  to  make 

a  cleaner,  safer,  and  healthier  city  in  which  to 

live. 

Name 

Address 

312 


Parent's  Pledge 

I  understand  the  serious  costs  to  life  and  property  from 
fire,  and  will  do  my  utmost  to  comply  with  the  rules  for  the 
prevention  of  fire  in  my  own  home  as  requested  by  the  Fire 
Prevention  Committee.  * 

Parent's  Name 

You  are  appointed  fire  inspector  for  your  home  in  co- 
operation with  the  -  Fire  Prevention  Campaign. 

Make  a  record  of  your  inspection  by  answering  each  of 
the  following  questions  Yes  or  No. 

Is  your  home  and  yard  kept  clear  of  rubbish?     

Are  ashes  always  put  in  noncombustible  containers? 

Are  all  matches  placed  in  covered  metal  boxes  beyond 
the  reach  of  small  children? 

Do  you  burn  trash  in  noncombustible  containers  fitted 
with  wire  top?  

Are  chimneys  and  stoves  in  your  home  regularly  exam- 
ined, repaired,  and  cleaned?  

Have  you  and  your  parents  read  the  fire  prevention  card 
and  are  you  complying  with  it?  

Do  you  know  the  location  of  the  nearest  fire-alarm 
box?  

Are  you  obeying  the  request  of  the  fire  chief  not  to  follow 
the  Fire  Department  to  fires?  

4.  Visits  to  and  study  of  community  organizations. 

a.  Visit  to  a  Boy  Scout  or  summer  camp. 

b.  Visit  to  a  public  market. 

c.  Visit  to  a  water  works. 

d.  Visit  to  a  gas  works. 

e.  Visit  to  an  electric  light  and  power  plant. 

f .  Visit  to  a  public  park. 

g.  Visit  to  a  fire  station. 

h.  Visit  to  a  public  library. 

313 


i.    Visit  to  a  city  council  meeting, 
j.    Visit  to  a  session  of  the  state  legislature, 
k.   Visit  to  any  available  local  factory  or  large  retail 
establishment. 

1.  Visit  to  a  laundry. 
m.  Visit  to  a  dairy. 

n.  Visit  to  an  ice  plant. 

IV 
THE  TEXT  OF  THE   CONSTITUTION 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common 
defen  e,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for 
the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I 

Section  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives. 

Section  II.  1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole 
number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.     The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of 
ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.    The  number  of  repre- 
sentatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be 
made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  3;   Massa- 

314 


chusetts,  8;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  1;  Connecticut, 
5;  New  York,  6;  New  Jersey,  4;  Pennsylvania,  8;  Delaware,!;  Maryland, 
6;  Virginia,  10;  North  Carolina,  5;  South  Carolina,  5,  and  Georgia,  3. 

4.  When   vacancies   happen   in   the  representation   from   any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of   election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  then*  speaker  and  other 
officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  two  senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years;  and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes. 
The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of 
the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration -of  the  fourth  year,  and 
of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may 
be  chosen  every  second  year;   and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or 
otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President 
pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall   have  the  sole  power  to  try  all   impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.    When 
the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall  preside; 
and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States :  but  the  party  convicted 
shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and 
punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.  1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for 
senators  and  representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legis- 

315 


lature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such 
regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law 
appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.  1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns 
and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to 
day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members, 
in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment 
require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on 
any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on 
the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other 
place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.  1.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of 
the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their 
attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House,  they 
shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall 
have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 
amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return 
it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 

316 


shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider 
it.  If  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to 
pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other 
House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two- 
thirds  of  that  House  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of 
both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of 
each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to 
him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall 
not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question 
of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States; 
and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the 
case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.  1.  The  Congress  shall  have  power:  To  lay  and  collect 
taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; . 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  rights  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

317 


12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrection,  and  repel  invasions; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment 
of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the 
discipline  prescribed  by  Congress; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased 
by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be, 
for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful 
buildings;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department 
or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any 
of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited 
by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight, 
but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  rev- 
enue to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall  vessels  bound 
to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law;    and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from 
time  to  time. 

318 


8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office,  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title, 
of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

Section  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con- 
federation; grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills 
of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary 
for  executing  its  inspection  laws:    and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and 
imposts  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the 
Treasury  of  the  United  States;   and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the 
revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agree- 
ment or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in 
war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

ARTICLE  II 

Section  I.  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years,  and  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected,  as  follows: 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no 
senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted 
for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate 
shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all 
the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more 
than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then 

319 


the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them 
for  President;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest 
on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of 
a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all 
the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of 
the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors 
shall  be  the  Vice  President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who 
have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice 
President. 

3.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;   which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

4.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  President;    neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen 
years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

5.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said 
office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Congress  may 
by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both 
of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as 
President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be 
removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

6.  The  President   shall,   at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall   neither   be   increased    nor  diminished   during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them. 

7.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  follow- 
ing oath  or  affirmation: — '*!  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faith- 
fully execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the 
best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States." 

Section  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when 
called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the 
opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  depart- 
ments, upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and 

320 


he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the 
United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,   other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall 
be  established  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of 
such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which 
shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  in- 
formation of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration 
such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case 
of  disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive 
ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be 
faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.  The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for.  and  con- 
viction of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III 

Section  I.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior  and  shall,  at 
stated  times,  receive  for  their  services,  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be 
diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority; — to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls; — to  all 
cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction; — to  controversies  to  which  the 
United  States  shall  be  a  party; — to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States — between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State; — between  citizens  of 
different  States, — between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under 

321 


grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.    In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury;   and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall 
have  been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial 
shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open 
court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason, 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV 

Section  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the 
Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts, 
records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  II.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privi- 
leges and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up 
to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation 
therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up 
on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Section  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  juris- 
diction of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of 
the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful 

322 


rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging 
to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed 
as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion;  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive 
(when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  the  legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a 
convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by 
the  legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in 
three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be 
proposed  by  the  Congress:  Provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be 
made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any 
manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first 
article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI 

1.  All   debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,   before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution   shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States 
under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof;    and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything 
in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or 
affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States. 

ARTICLE  VII 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying 
the  same. 

323 


Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  sub- 
scribed our  names. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 
President  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

John  Langdon 
Nicholas  Oilman 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Nathaniel  Gorham 
Rufus  King 

CONNECTICUT 

William  Samuel  Johnson 
Roger  Sherman 

NEW  YORK 

Alexander  Hamilton 

NEW  JERSEY 

William  Livingston 
David  Brearley 
William  Paterson 
Jonathan  Dayton 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Benjamin  Franklin 
Thomas  Mifflin 
Robert  Morris 
George  Clymer 
Thomas  Fitzsimons 
Jared  Ingersoll 
James  Wilson 
Gouverneur  Morris 


DELAWARE 

George  Read 
Gunning  Bedford,  Jr. 
John  Dickinson 
Richard  Bassett 
Jacob  Broom 

MARYLAND 

James  McHenry 

Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer 

Daniel  Carroll 

VIRGINIA 

John  Blair 

James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

William  Blount 
Richard  Dobbs  Spaight 
Hugh  Williamson 

SOUTH   CAROLINA 

John  Rutledge 
Charles  C.  Pinckney 
Charles  Pinckney 
Pierce  Butler 

GEORGIA 

William  Few 
Abraham  Baldwin 

Attest:  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 

324 


AMENDMENTS 
ARTICLE  I 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  U 

A  well-regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed 
by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV 

•  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated, and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported 
by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V 

No  person  should  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  in- 
famous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service  in  the  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb; 
nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself, 
nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law; 
nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and 
cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him; 
to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to 
have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

325 


ARTICLE  VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried 
by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States, 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  or  excessive  fines  im'posed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States,  respectively, 

or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one 
of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects 

of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  president  of  the  Senate, — The  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates 
and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted; — The  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such  ma- 
jority, then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding 
three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each 

326 


State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member 
or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon 
them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice  President 
shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
as  Vice  President  shall  be  the  Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the 
Vice  President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office 
of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within 
the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State 
wherein  they  reside.    No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;   nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;   nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal 
protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall   be   apportioned  among  the   several   States 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.    But  when  the  right  to  vote  at 
any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the 
United   States,   representatives  in   Congress,   the  executive  and   judicial 
officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any 
of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  States,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation 
in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  re- 
duced in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear 
to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or  elector 

327 


of  President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under 
the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath 
as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member 
of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State, 
to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in 
insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same:  or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the 
enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House 
remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
service  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt 
or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such 
debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legis- 
lation, the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color, 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XVI 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several 
States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators 
from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 
senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  quali- 
6cation  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State 
legislature. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the  Senate, 
the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies:  Provided,  That  the  legislature  of  any  State  may  empower  the 
executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointment  until  the  people  fill  the 
vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

3<28 


ARTICLE  XVIII 

Section  1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the 
manufacture,  sale  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 
importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United  States 
and  all  territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  for  beverage  purposes  is 
hereby  prohibited. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  and  several  States  shall  have  concurrent  power 
to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIX  , 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or 
abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  sex.  Congress 
shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


INDEX 


adjutant-general,  of  state,  166 

advertisements,  unsightliness  of,  114 

agriculture,  see  farming;  state  departments 
of,  168;  United  States  department  of,  182 

airplane,  development  of,  224 

Alamo,  battle  of,  285 

Alaska,  acquired,  288 

America,  the  melting-pot,  293 

American  ideals,  what  are,  294 

American  nation,  how  made  up,  28 

American  Revolution,  beginning  of,  36;  his- 
tory of,  232 

anarchy,  what  is,  138 

appeal,  right  of,  146 

Armament  Conference,  297 

army,  of  United  States,  how  constituted,  176 

Articles  of  Confederation,  government  under, 
234 

athletics*  meet  for  women,  197 

attorney-general,  of  state,  166 

auditor,  of  state,  166 

automobile,  increase  in  manufacture  of,  224; 
invention  of,  218 

B 

bail,  what  is,  142 

banking,  history  of,  264-265 

banks,  functions  of,  266 

barter,  what  is,  260 

baseball,  rules  in,  29 

basket  ball,  32 

bathtub,  98 

beauty,  how  children  can  help  to  create,  115; 

in  American  cities,  110;  in  yards,  112;  of 

trees,  113 
Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  invents  telephone, 

226;  patents  telephone,  180 
Bill  of  Rights,  231 
blind  nlley  jobs,  188 
boss,  in  city  government,  154 
Boy  Scouts,  at  Manila,  11,  12,  13;  camping, 

199 


Brockton,  factory  at,  210 

bubonic  plague,  182 

budget,  of  city,  153;  value  of  private,  106 

Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing,  81 

Burr,  Aaron,  trial  of,  145 

business,  occupation  of,  191 


cabinet,  of  President,  how  composed,  244-245 

California,  and  the  gold  rush,  286;  ways  to 
reach  in  1849,  286 

campaign,  what  is,  274 

Camp  Fire  Girls,  12 

camping,  pleasure  oi,  199 

capital,  distinguishes  civilization,  52;  neces- 
sity of,  211 

Capitol,  of  United  States,  80 

captain,  the,  in  games,  31 

Cardwell,  Mary,  story  of,  46 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  succeeded  by  thrift,  104 

Catskill  Mountains,  supply  New  York 
water,  102 

Central  Park,  in  New  York,  66 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  154 

Charles  I,  wars  with  Parliament,  231 

Chicago  anarchist  case,  143 

Chief  Justice,  of  Supreme  Court,  administers 
presidential  oath,  242 

China,  and  American  ideals,  294 

church,  importance  as  community,  25 

citizen,  how  one  becomes,  280;  the  good,  56; 
the  good  at  school,  56;  the  good,  how  dis- 
tinguished, 57 

city,  charter  of,  ,148;  forms  of  government  of, 
149-155;  parts  of,  60 

city  hall,  seat  of  city  government,  61 

city  manager  government,  149,  150,  152,  154 

Civics  Club,  organization  of,  299-303 

Civic  Improvement  League,  154 

Civil  Service  Act,  what  is,  243 

cleanliness,  and  health,  98;  importance  of  to 
health,  47 

coinage,  function  of  United  States  govern- 
ment, 80 


331 


colonial  life,  in  United  States,  40 

colonies,  American,  deny  right  of  Parliament 
to  tax,  232 

commission  government,  of  city,  149,  150, 
152,  154 

commissioner  of  charities  and  correction,  166 

community,  as  an  athletic  team,27;  at  James- 
town and  Plymouth,  20;  health  of,  47;  how 
works  to  prevent  fires,  127;  idleness  in.  44; 
importance  of  local,  157;  larger  kinds  of, 
73;  natural  mode  of  human  life,  21;  of 
county  and  town  27;  of  home,  23;  of  the 
nation,  28;  on  Robinson  Crusoe's  island, 
20;  place  of  schools  in,  131;  position  of 
teachers  in,  132;  the  church.  25;  the  school, 
26;  thrives  by  cooperation,  44 

Congress,  28;  committees  of,  252;  how  con- 
stituted, 80;  how  it  passes  a  law,  252,  why 
composed  as  it  is,  249 

consolidated  schools,  20;  advantages  of,  197 

constitution,  of  states,  163;  how  made,  163 

Constitution,  of  United  States,  amendments 
to,  238,  239;  compromises  of,  237;  debates 
over,  236;  how  made,  235-237;  made  in 
Philadelphia,  234;  ratified,  237;  supreme 
law  of  land,  163;  text  of,  314-329;  what  is, 
235 

cooperation,  as  shown  by  Manila  fire,  12; 
before  it  was  learned  in  occupations,  40; 
depends  on  rules,  29;  in  athletics,  27;  in 
modern  occupations,  43 

copyrights,  issued  by  national  government, 
180 

coroner,  who  is,  141 

corporation  commissions,  181;  functions  of, 
171 

council  government,  in  city,  149, 150, 152, 154 

counterfeiters,  make  money,  81 

country  life,  advantages  of,  68 

county,  as  a  community,  27;  courts  of,  160; 
how  raises  money,  160;  officers  of,  158-160; 
origin  of,  157;  the,  and  schools,  69;  the, 
officers  of,  69;  the,  what  it  does,  68;  varie- 
ties of  government  of,  158 

courage,  in  games,  35 

courthouse,  capital  of  county,  70 

courts,  cases  tried  in,  136;  circuit,  136,  153, 
160,  171;  corporation,  153;  county,  136, 
160,  171;  justices',  171;  juvenile,  153;  of 
state,  77,  171;  of  United  States,  cases  tried 
by,  256-257;  what  are,  256;  why  needed, 
255;  police,  153;  supreme,  136,  165 


credit,  what  is,  264 

crime,  investigation  of,  141;  penalties  for,137, 

what  is,  136 
crowds,  safety  regulations  for,  120 

D 

Dead  Letter  Office,  83 

Declaration  of  Independence,  80;  made  by 

Congress,  232 

democracy,  promoted  by  public  schools,  131 
Democratic  party,  history  of,  272;  in  states, 

173 
departments,  of  United  States  government, 

245 

diphtheria,  168 
District  of  Columbia,  28 
division  of  labor,  211 
Druid  Hill  Park,  Baltimore,  66 
dust,  danger  of,  98 


Edison,  Thomas,  patents  appliances,  180 

education,  for  bread- winning,  97;  part  of 
United  States  government  in,134;  study  of, 
129-135;  supported  by  state,  73-74 

Ellis  Island,  place  where  immigrants  land, 
277 

English  Parliament,  taxes  America,  79 

exchange,  what  is,  260 

exercise,  importance  of  to  health,  193 


factories,  modern,  210;  safety  regulations  in 
122 

fair  play,  need  of  in  games,  37 

Farmer- Labor  party,  rise  of,  273 

farming,  study  of,  202-207;  greatest  of  call- 
ings, 202;  how  to  improve,  205-207;  im- 
provement of  as  occupation,  93;  independ- 
ence of,  203;  occupation  of,  191;  profit  of, 
205;  wealth  of,  202 

Federal  Reserve  banks,  171 

Federal  Reserve  System,  what  is,  267 

Federalist  party,  history  of,  271 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  lays  cable,  226 

filth,  as  a  promoter  of  typhoid  fever,  46 

fire  company,  at  Manila,  11 

fire  department,  of  modern  cities,  64;  regu- 
lations of,  117 

fire  prevention,  importance  of,  124 

fires,  causes  of,  127;  community  works  to  pre- 


vent,  127;  cost  of  in  United  States,  124; 
forest,  124;  induced  by  carelessness,  124; 
insurance  against,  125;  number  of  in 
United  States,  124 

Fitch,  John,  invents  steamboat,  217 

flies,  importance  of  killing,  100 

football,  cooperation  in,  33;  rules  in,  30;  in- 
cidents in  Harvard- Yale  game,  32,  35 

franchise,  of  street  railway,  221 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  establishes  post  offices, 
82;  peacemaker  in  constitutional  conven- 
tion, 236 

Fulton,  Robert,  builds  steamboat,  217 


Galveston,  originator  of  commission  govern- 
ment, 155 

games,  benefits  of,  33;  cooperation  in,  29-31; 
fair  play  in,  37;  Olympic,  193,  195 

George  III,  taxes  colonies,  231 

Girl  Scouts,  12 

Godbold,  Lucile,  197 

Goethals,  Major  G.  W.,  and  Panama  Canal, 
291 

good  roads,  aided  by  state,  75;  arguments  for, 
222-223;  built  by  counties,  68;  highways 
departments  and,  167 

Gorgas,  Colonel  William  C.,  and  Panama 
Canal,  291 

government,  22;  springs  from  home,  25 

governor,  duties  of,  75,  164-165 

Greenback  party,  history  of,  273 

H 

habeas  corpus,  what  is,  258 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  in  constitutional  con- 
vention, 236 

Health  Chores,  50 

health  department,  of  state,  47,  48;  of  in 
states,  167 

health,  depends  on  cleanliness,  47;  impor- 
tance of  cleanliness  to,  98;  promoted  by 
outdoor  exercise,  194;  safeguarded  by  reg- 
ulations, 119 

Henry  I,  grants  charter  to  England,  229 

Henry,  Patrick,  moral  courage  of,  36;  op- 
poses Constitution,  237 

highway  commissioner,  of  state,  166 

home,  the  £rst  community,  23-25 

hookworm,  168 

hospitals,  supported  by  state,  74 


Hot  Springs,  200 

House  of  Burgesses,  of  Virginia,  36 

House  of  Representatives,  districts  of,  251; 

how  composed,  251;  where  it  sits,  249 
houses,  clean,  98 
housing,  improvement  in,  113 
hundreds,  in  Virginia,  21 

I 

idleness,  in  every  community,  44 

immigrants,  character  of,  279;  danger  from, 
279;  how  they  come,  277;  law  to  restrict, 
277 

immigration,  causes  of,  278;  controlled  by 
national  government,  175 

impeachments,  how  tried,  253 

imprisonment,  function  of  state,  75;  improve- 
ment of  methods  of,  139 

inauguration,  description  of,  274 

indictment,  what  is,  141 

initiative,  164 

injunctions,  what  are,  258 

insurance  commissioner,  of  state,  166 

interest,  what  is,  105 

internal  revenue,  what  is,  269 

International  Court  of  Arbitration,  at  Hague, 
297 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  duties  of, 
182;  fixes  railroad  rates,  220 


James  I,  dislike  Parliament,  230 

James  II,  overthrown,  231 

Jamestown,  community  at,  20;  first  assembly 
at,  231 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  acquires  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory, 284;  writes  Declaration  pf  Independ- 
ence, 80 

Jerry,  and  the  governor,  story  of,  76 

John,  forced  to  grant  Magna  Carta,  229 

Johnson,  Owen,  story  from,  37 

Junior  Citizens  Club,  discussion  of  savings 
system,  53;  meeting  of,  305-310;  organiza- 
tion of,  13-17;  reorganized,  85-90;  again  re- 
organized, 184-186;  should  beautify  school 
grounds,  100 

jury,  fairness  of,  143;  grand,  what  is,  141;  in 
trial,  144;  petit,  what  is,  142 

K 

Keep  Your  City  Clean  Club  pledge,  103 
Know-Nothing  party,  history  of,  273 


333 


laws,  for  fire  prevention,  128;  how  benefit 
people,  137;  how  made,  168-170;  how  pro- 
tect persons  on  trial,  145,  146;  how  they 
originate,  22,  25;  improvement  in,  137;  of 
United  States,  how  made,  252;  part  of  in 
human  progress,  138;  what  are,  136 
legislature,  branch  of  state  government,  77; 

committees  of,  168;  of  state,  168 
lieutenant-governor,  duties  of,  165 
Livingston,  Robert  R.,  buys  Louisiana,  284 
London  Charter,  what  was,  229 
Louisiana  Territory,  how  acquired,  284 

M 

Madison,  James,  suggests  constitutional  con- 
vention, 234 

Magna  Carta,  granted  by  King  John,  229 
Manila,  fire  at,  11 

manufacturing,  early  stages  of,  209;  impor- 
tance of  to  farming,  207;  modern,  210;  pro- 
moted by  steel  and  steam,  309 

manufacturing  section,  of  city,  60 

Marconi,  invents  wireless  telegraphy,  227 

Mason,  George,  refuses  to  sign  constitution, 
237 

Massachusetts,  founded,  231 

medicine,  occupation  of,  190 

medium  of  exchange,  what  is,  261 

Mesa  Verde,  200 

Mexico,  United  States  acquires  territory 
from,  286 

Military  Academy,  of  United  States,  178 

militia,  controlled  by  national  government  in 
war,  176 

minting  money,  81 

mints,  81 

Modern  Health  Crusade,  50 

money,  as  medium  of  exchange,  262-263 

Money  Order,  of  post  office,  83 

Monroe,  James,  and  Louisiana  Purchase,  284 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  founds  Parliament,  230 

Morse,  Samuel,  invents  telegraph,  225 

mosquito  extermination,  304 

Mount  McKinley  Park,  200 

N 

nation,  American,  what  it  does,  175;  as  a  com- 
munity, 28 

naturalization,  what  is,  280 . 
nature,  beauties  of,  202;  love  of,  201 


Naval  Academy,  of  United  States,  178 

navy,  of  United  States,  178 

New  England,  local  government  in,  158 

New  Orleans,  battle  of,  225 

New  York  City,  water  supply  of,  102 

o 

occupations,  before  cooperation  began,  40; 

business,  191;  choice  of,  187;  farming,  93, 

191;  few  at  one  time,  92;  for  women,  187; 

indoor,  95;  in  modern  life,  42;  main,  188; 

making  up  one's  mind  as  to  following,  91; 

medicine,  190;  great  variety  of  modern,  93; 

outdoor,  94;  skilled,  95;  skilled  trades,  193; 

stenography,  190;  teaching,  189;  unskilled, 

96;  unwise,  188 
office  building  section,  60 
Olympic  Games,  history  of,  193;  revival  of, 

195 
ordinances,  of  city,  how  passed,  152 


Panama  Canal,  building  of,  289-291 

paper  money,  where  made,  81 

Parcel  Post,  83 

parks,  in  city,  65;  national,  establishment  of, 

199 
Parliament,  of  England,  controlled  by  king, 

231; founded,  230 
parties,  history  of,  271-273;  in  states,  173; 

Democratic,     173;     Farmer-Labor,     174; 

Federalist,  171;  Whig,  172;  Populist,  174, 

273;  Republican,  173,  272:  Socialist,  174 
party  conventions,  account  of,  273-274 
Patent  Office,  contains  marvels,  180 
patents,  issued  by  national  government,  180 
penitentiaries,  institutions  of  state,  74 
Philadelphia  mint,  81 
Philippine  Islands,  acquired.  289 
playgrounds,  importance  of,  34;  in  city,  65; 

story  about,  198 
Plymouth,  community  at,  20 
police  departments,  regulations  of,  117 
police,  work  of,  63 
Populist  party,  history  of,  273 
Porto  Rico,  acquired,  289 
post  office,  controlled  by  United  States  gov- 
ernment, 82;  origin  of  in  United  States,  82 
Postal  Savings  Bank,  83;  explained,  54 
Postal  Savings  stamps,  108 
President,  appointing  power  of,  243;  cabinet 


334 


of,  244;  certain  powers  of,  244;  commander- 
in-chief,  244;  inauguration  of,  242;  how 
chosen,  241;  succession  of,  242 

presidential  electors,  how  chosen,  241 

primaries,  in  states,  173 

prisons,  in  the  old  times,  189;  modern,  139 

probation,  children  put  on,  153;  what  is,  139 

projects,  310-314 

prosecuting  attorney,  how  investigates  crime, 
141;  part  of  in  trials,  143,  144 

public  duty,  performance  of  test  of  citizen- 
ship, 57 

public  libraries,  64 

R 

radiophone,  possibilities  of,  227 

railroads,  built,  217,  218;  cost  of  building, 
219;  government  ownership  of,  220;  how 
care  for  safety  of  passengers,  118;  trans- 
continental, 288 

rapid  transit,  in  cities,  221 

referendum,  164 

Republican  party,  history  of.  173,  272 

residential  section,  of  city,  61 

Richard  the  Lion-Hearted,  grants  charters, 
229 

rights  of  Englishmen,  what  were,  231 

Robinson  Crusoe,  a  jack-of-all-trades,  40;  on 
desert  isle,  18-20;  respects  Friday's  rights, 
23 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  builds  Panama  Canal, 
289 

Rumsey,  James,  invents  steamboat,  217 

Rural  Free  Delivery,  83 


public,  129;  savings  bank  in,  53;  special, 
133;  supported  by  the  county,  69;  sup- 
ported by  taxation,  135;  vocational,  133 

secession,  right  of  asserted,  239 

secretary  of  state,  165 

Senate,  approves  appointments,  243;  more 
important  body  of  Congress,  250;  where  it 
sits,  249 

senators,  of  United  States,  how  elected,  250 

Sequoia  Park,  200 

service,  law  of,  44 

sheriff,  duties  of,  69;  importance  of,  159;  part 
of  in  investigating  crime,  141 

shopping  district,  60 

skilled  trades,  occupations  of,  193 

smallpox,  168 

speaker,  of  Congress,  251;  of  legislature,  169 

state,  aids  good  roads,  75;  aids  public  schools, 
74,  constitution  of.  163;  courts  of,  77;  leg- 
islature of,  77;  maintains  hospitals.  74; 
supports  higher  education,  73;  as  a  com- 
munity, 27 

Staunton,  originator  of  city  manager  govern- 
ment, 155 

stenography,  occupation  of,  190 

Stephenson,  George,  invents  the  locomotive, 
217 

Stockholm,  Olympic  Games  at,  195 

street  cars,  safety  on,  120; 

streets,  cared  for  by  city,  62;  kept  clean,  98 

superintendent  of  public  instruction,  166 

Supreme  Court,  of  United  States,  extends 
power  of  government,  240;  how  composed, 
256;  protects  citizens,  83;  where  sits,  80 


safety,  and  Fourth  of  July  celebrations,  116; 
factory  regulations  for,  122;  health  regu- 
lations for,  118;  in  handling  crowds,  120; 
in  theaters,  120;  on  street  cars,  120;  police 
regulations  for,  117;  promoted  by  fire  de- 
partments, 117;  promoted  by  fire  drills, 
117;  railroad  regulations  for,  118;  regula- 
tions for,  116 

safety-first  movement,  122;  rules,  122 

Sandwich  Islands,  acquired,  288 

savings  bank,  53 

schoolhouses,  as  indices  to  city,  61 

schools,  consolidated,  197;  early,  129;  ele- 
mentary, 132;  how  promote  democracy, 
131;  place  in  community  life,  131;  rise  of 


tariff,  what  is,  179,  268 
tax,  income,  270;  inheritance,  270 
teachers,  position  of  in  community,  132 
teaching,  occupation  of,  189 
Texas,  struggle  of  for  independence,  285 
theater,  safety  regulations  of,  120 
thrift,  easiness  of,  107;  maxims  of,  54;  mean- 
ing of,  104;  good  reason  for,  108;  reason  for 
to  secure  return,  105;  the  savage  lacks,  52; 
the  way  to  wealth,  109;  universal  need  of, 
106;  ways  to  practice,  108 
town,  as  a  community,  27;  charter  of,  148; 

government  of,  148 
Town  Meeting,  in  New  England,  158 
towns,  in  New  England,  21 


335 


transportation,   first   methods   of,   215;   im- 
portance of,  218;  improvement  in,  216 
treasurer,  of  state,  165 
trees,  importance  of  to  cities,  113 
trials,  procedure  in  criminal,  141-145 
trolleys,  for  local  transportation,  217 
typhoid  fever,  conveyed  in  impure   water, 
101;  combated  by  health  departments,  168; 
story  of,  46 

u 

Uncle  Sam,  meaning  of,  79 

Union  Pacific  railroad,  building  of,  219,  288 

United  States,  how  made  up,  79;  wins  inde- 
pendence, 80 

United  States  government,  additional  func- 
tions of,  175-183;  belongs  to  people,  83; 
beginning  of,  232;  coins  money,  80;  con- 
trols post  office,  82;  departments  of,  245; 
expenses  of,  268;  part  of  in  education,  134; 
powers  of,  238 

V 

Valley  Forge,  American  army  at,  234 

veto,  of  President,  253 

Vice  President,  becomes  President,  242;  how 

chosen,  241 

Virgin  Islands,  acquired,  289 
Virginia,  county  in,  157,  158;  founded,  231 


vocational  schools,  132 
vocations,  see  occupations 
voter,  qualifications  of,  172 

w 

warrant,  what  is,  141 

Washington,  beauty  of,  110;  capital  of  United 
States,  80 

Washington,  George,  chairman  of  constitu- 
tional convention,  236;  elected  President, 
238;  leads  United  States  to  liberty,  80 

waste,  needlessness  of,  107 

water,  pure,  importance  of,  101 

Watt,  James,  invents  steam  engine,  209 

weather  bureau,  functions  of,  181 

weight,  of  girls  and  boys,  193,  196 

Whig  party,  history  of,  272 

William,  Duke  of  the  Normans,  228,  229 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  173;  at  Versailles  confer- 
ence, 297 

Woolworth  Building,  how  built,  52 

World  Wrar,  America  in,  294;  expenses  of,  269 


yards,  importance  of  keeping  clean, 

yellow  fever,  182 

Yosemite  National  Park,  200 


THE    END 


336 


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